Introduction to Parachute Rigging

Regulations and Human Factors

A parachute rigger has a critical responsibility to anyone who uses a parachute. For many, a special meaning can be attributed to ensuring the safety of a piece of equipment that may save their life or that of a friend. For others, attention to detail may keep a stranger safe during recreational activities, such as skydiving or aerobatic flying. This chapter explains what parachute riggers do and what is required to earn a Parachute Rigger Certificate. In addition, this chapter covers relevant human factor issues and ethical standards.

The term “rigger” originated in the 16th Century and referred to a person who organized, repaired, and maintained sails and lines aboard sailing ships. The rigger was not a high-ranking individual aboard the ship, but he was an essential technician that could not be done without. Likewise, parachute riggers, as indispensible as they are, must operate within strict boundaries set forth by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). When parachutes were developed in the early 20th Century, those who sewed the canopies and lines became known as “riggers.” In those first decades, anyone with some knowledge of sewing and materials could make or repair parachutes. As the aviation industry grew and matured, the need for trained individuals to pack and maintain the parachutes grew as well. In order to protect the pilots and public who flew in airplanes and relied on parachutes, the government began to license these individuals. Rigging, in reference to parachutes, came to mean: the final adjustment and alignment of the various component sections to provide the proper aerodynamic reaction.

Parachute Rigger Certificates

Parachutes intended for emergency use in civil aircraft in the United States, including the reserve parachute of a dual parachute system to be used for intentional jumping, must be packed, maintained, or altered by a person who holds an appropriate and current Parachute Rigger Certificate. The certificate is issued under Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR), part 65, subpart F. These regulations do not apply to an individual who packs the main parachute of a dual parachute pack to be used for intentional jumping. These regulations also do not apply to parachutes packed, maintained, or altered for use by the Armed Forces.

Any person who holds a Parachute Rigger Certificate must present it for inspection if requested by the Administrator or an authorized representative of the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) or any federal, state, or local law enforcement officer. A sample certificate is shown in Figure 1-1.

Eligibility and Requirements

To be eligible for a Parachute Rigger Certificate issued by the FAA, individuals must be at least 18 years of age; be able to read, write, speak, and understand the English language; and comply with other requirements of 14 CFR, part 65, subpart F, which governs the certification of parachute riggers. There are two levels of Parachute Rigger Certificate available in the United States: senior and master. The Senior Parachute Rigger candidate must pack a minimum of 20 parachutes of one type and be able to demonstrate the ability to maintain and make minor repairs. The Master Parachute Rigger candidate must have 3 years of experience as a parachute rigger and have packed at least 100 parachutes of two types in common use (for a total of 200 pack jobs). There are four type ratings that may be placed on a Parachute Rigger Certificate: back, chest, seat, and lap. Of these, the first three are used today. The lap rating applies to parachutes that are basically obsolete. A Senior Parachute Rigger is considered a journeyman technician, and the Master Parachute Rigger is considered an expert.

The two types of certificates differ in the level of experience and responsibility. A Senior Parachute Rigger may pack, as well as maintain, a parachute by making minor repairs. A Master Parachute Rigger has all the privileges of the lesser certificate plus the ability to make major repairs and alter parachutes according to approved data. A major repair is one that, if improperly done, can appreciably affect the airworthiness of the parachute. An example of a major repair might be replacing a damaged canopy panel or altering a harness by changing the size of a main lift web. A minor repair is anything other than a major repair, such as a small patch on a canopy or the replacement of a defective or worn connector link.

Earning a Parachute Rigger Certificate

When an applicant meets the requirements and demonstrates sufficient knowledge and skills as outlined in 14 CFR part 65, subpart F, the supervising parachute rigger (either a senior or

Master Parachute Rigger) “signs off” on the trainee’s logbook and provides a letter to the FAA that allows the applicant to take the necessary tests. [Figure 1-2]

Once the rigging candidate has successfully achieved a rigger's certificate, they can now begin to learn through experience. Rigging is best learned through apprenticeship; however, it takes a lot of time to become intimately familiar with materials, learn how to identify stains, and experience packing the myriad of sport parachute systems.

Testing

The applicant should take a letter similar to the one depicted in Figure 1-2, the applicant’s logbook, and any other necessary identification to the nearest FAA Flight Standards District Office (FSDO) or International Field Office (IFO). An FAA Aviation Safety Inspector (ASI) (airworthiness) examines these documents for completeness and eligibility. The applicant is asked to fill out FAA Form 8610-2, Airman Certificate and/or Rating Application. When the inspector has determined that the applicant is eligible to take the test, he or she signs the FAA Form 8610-2. [Figure 1-3] Once this is done, the applicant may then go to any of the designated FAA airman knowledge testing centers to take the airman knowledge written test.

The knowledge test consists of 50 multiple-choice questions that are not designed to be tricky or misleading. They cover all basic rigging and packing subject areas in addition to 14 CFR part 65 regulations. A minimum score of 70 percent is required to pass the test. The test is scored immediately on conclusion of the test and a Certified Airman Knowledge Test report is issued to the applicant. [Figure 1-4] After passing the test, the candidate may then make an appointment for taking the oral and practical portion of the test with a Designated Parachute Rigger Examiner (DPRE).

Under 14 CFR, part 183, DPREs are Master Parachute Riggers who have attended an FAA course and are authorized to conduct oral and practical tests for the Administrator. In many cases, these individuals are full-time professionals who work in the parachute industry. Upon the successful completion of the oral and practical tests, in most cases, the DPRE issues a Temporary Parachute Rigger Certificate and a seal symbol to the candidate. [Figure 1-5] In some FSDO jurisdictions, the district office may issue the temporary certificate and/or seal symbol. The seal symbol consists of three letters or numbers or a combination of both. [Figure 1-6] The seal symbol is very important; it serves as the identifying mark for that individual parachute rigger and is used to seal any parachute that he or she packs.

Alternate Means of Qualifying for a Parachute Rigger Certificate

Active duty military personnel and civilian personnel who work for the military as parachute riggers may qualify for a Senior Parachute Rigger Certificate under the provisions of 14 CFR part 65, section 65.117, Special Certification Rule. If they meet the practical requirements, they need only take a special 25-question test.

A Senior Parachute Rigger applying for a Master Parachute Rigger Certificate only needs to take the oral and practical test. A person with 3 years experience as a parachute rigger, but not holding a Senior Parachute Rigger Certificate, must take both the knowledge test and the oral and practical test. Any parachute rigger, senior or master, who wishes to add additional ratings to his or her certificate needs to take only a practical test for the type rating sought. No additional knowledge test is necessary.

Retesting

If the applicant fails the knowledge test, he or she may retake the test under the following conditions: An applicant may apply for retesting by presenting the failed test report:

It is also possible for candidates who pass the test but receive a marginal score to retake the test with the anticipation of getting a higher score. In this case, the candidate must wait a minimum of 30 days from the date the last test was taken to retake a passed test. Prior to retesting, the individual must give his or her current airman test report to the proctor. The most recent test taken reflects the official score.

Responsibilities of a Certificated Parachute Rigger

Parachute riggers have a broad range of responsibilities that include ensuring that proper facilities and equipment are available to him or her, adhering to certain performance standards, record keeping, and use of their seal. The following describes the responsibilities of a certificated parachute rigger.

Facilities and Tools

Issuance of a Parachute Rigger Certificate is just the first step toward becoming a professional parachute rigger. As the un-certificated apprentice gains experience packing, he or she should also begin to acquire an inventory of tools and manuals necessary to exercise the privileges of a certificate. In compliance with 14 CFR part 65, section 65.127, there are several items required. One of these requirements is a smooth tabletop that is at least 3 feet wide by 40 feet long. Note that there is no specification for height. A table is only desirable if the parachute rigger is going to pack round parachutes. With the predominance of square reserve parachutes in the skydiving community, some parachute riggers specialize in packing only square reserves. A table can be used for packing this type of parachute, but the manufacturer may specify any smooth, clean surface of a size that accommodates the canopy. In this case, a clean, carpeted floor does the job and a table may not be necessary. According to 14 CFR part 65, subsection 65.127(b), the parachute rigger needs suitable housing that is adequately heated, lighted, and ventilated for drying and airing parachutes. This is subject to interpretation by the parachute rigger and the Administrator since the standards fluctuate based on location and time of year. A parachute rigger must have enough tools and equipment to pack and maintain the types of parachutes for which he or she is rated to service. This may include only the basic tools of a packing fid, temporary pin, and pull-up cord if this is all that the manufacturer says is necessary to pack its product. However, there is a broad selection of tools necessary for a well-equipped parachute rigger to possess. These are covered in detail in Chapter 6, Hand Tools, Sewing Machines, and the Parachute Loft.

Performance Standards

A number of performance standards are defined in 14 CFR part 65, section 65.129 to guide the parachute rigger’s performance of the duties that fall under the certificate. The parachute rigger may not:

The last item in this list is one that has been abused by many Master Parachute Riggers over the years. The Master Parachute Rigger must have Administrator or manufacturer approval, in writing, to be in compliance with this regulation. Aside from the necessary tools, 14 CFR part 65, subsection 65.129(f) states that parachute riggers may exercise the privileges of the certificate only if they understand the current manufacturer’s instructions for the operation involved. This means that the rigger must possess a copy of the instructions or have access to them during the operation. If they do not have a copy, but the owner of the parachute provides them, then the parachute rigger may pack or maintain the parachute.

A variation on this theme is accessing the packing instruction via the Internet. Many manufacturers provide manuals via their websites. If the parachute rigger does not download the actual instruction, they must show that they had access during the packing of the parachute. For example, a laptop computer may not have a printer attached but could still meet this requirement.

Parachute riggers are not necessarily required to download the instructions to a hard drive or disk as long as they are able to access the manual in real time. However, if a problem is identified with the parachute rigger’s pack job at a later date, the parachute rigger would need to prove to the Administrator that he or she had access to the instructions. Without a hardcopy or downloaded computer files, it would appear that the parachute rigger had not met the rule requirement.

Currency Requirements

Once an individual obtains a Parachute Rigger Certificate, it is valid for life unless surrendered, suspended, or revoked. If the individual intends to work as a parachute rigger and not just have the certificate, it is necessary that he or she maintain currency as a practicing parachute rigger. These currency requirements include at least one of the following.

Record Keeping

Maintaining proper records of parachute rigger activities is an important responsibility. This is necessary for the protection of the parachute rigger, the user of the parachute, and the satisfaction of the Administrator. Under 14 CFR part 65, section 65.131, certificated parachute riggers must document the packing, maintenance, and alteration of parachutes they have performed or supervised. These records normally are documented in a parachute rigger’s logbook. The following information must be documented:

These records must be kept for a minimum of 2 years.

Figure 1-7 shows a sample of a logbook page. In addition, each parachute rigger must note on the parachute packing record or data card the following information: [Figure 1-8]

While not required on the data card, it has become commonplace for the parachute rigger to note the work performed as well. This is usually noted as assemble and pack (A&P) or inspect and repack (I&R). Professional parachute riggers often use an ink stamp on the data card that indicates name, certificate number, seal symbol, and provides an area for signature. This allows the customer or other parachute riggers to read the name (some signatures are illegible) and to correlate the last entry with the seal on the parachute.

Sealing the Parachute

As noted previously, each certificated parachute rigger is issued a unique symbol with which to seal each parachute once he or she packs it in a manner prescribed by the manufacturer. A hand press, 4.75 pound tensile seal thread, and a lead blank are used for this purpose. This ensures that no one tampers with the parachute, and the owner knows that it is ready for use.

Regulatory Compliance

As with other airman certificates, there are additional parts of 14 CFR that are of direct concern to the parachute rigger in addition to those already mentioned. It is important that the parachute rigger have a thorough understanding of these parts in order to avoid any inadvertent non-compliance: 14 CFR parts 1, 21, 39, 91, 105, and 183.

14 CFR part 1—Definitions

This part provides legal definitions for words and abbreviations under this title. One of the more important terms in this part is that of the Administrator. The Administrator is the administrative head of the FAA or any employee of the FAA to whom authority has been delegated. The parachute rigger is most likely to come in contact with two individuals who may act on the Administrator’s behalf.

The first is the ASI from the local FSDO or IFO. This employee of the FAA is responsible for enforcement of the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) in aviation matters. The ASI (airworthiness type) has jurisdictional responsibility in such matters as compliance with the rules, approving data for major repairs or alterations, investigation of accidents, overseeing airshows and demo jumps, or any aviationrelated matter.

The second is the local DPRE. This private person is empowered to conduct practical tests for the Administrator.

14 CFR part 21, subpart O—Technical Standard Orders (TSO)

A Technical Standard Order (TSO) is issued by the Administrator and is a minimum performance standard for specified articles, such as parachutes. It is important that the parachute rigger understand the TSO process and the various levels of TSO approval under which parachutes are manufactured. Every parachute rigger should read and become familiar with the TSOs for parachutes, the 23 series (C23b, C23c, C23d). This is important to the parachute rigger in determining certification compatibility when he or she is assembling approved components.

14 CFR part 39—Airworthiness Directives (ADs)

This part specifically deals with Airworthiness Directives (ADs). An AD is an amendment to the CFR. An AD must be complied with before using an affected product. In the case of a parachute, when:

Under 14 CFR part 39, “No person may operate a product to which an airworthiness directive applies except in accordance with the requirements of that airworthiness directive.” In recent years, there have been a number of parachute ADs issued by the Administrator. These ADs prescribe certain actions to be taken by the parachute rigger in order to ensure the safety and function of parachutes that have been found in some manner to be defective. If the parachute rigger does not comply with the AD, the parachute rigger cannot pack, maintain, or alter the affected parachute. ADs are mailed to each certificated parachute rigger on the FAA listing. If the parachute rigger has moved and not complied with the requirements for an address change, the rigger may not receive the AD. This introduces an additional problem. Under 14 CFR, part 65, subpart A—General, section 65.21, airmen must register their change of address within 30 days of moving or they are not able to exercise the privileges of their certificate.

14 CFR part 91—General Operating and Flight Rules

14 CFR part 91, section 91.307 of 14 CFR deals with parachutes and parachuting. This section defines an “approved parachute” and states the repack time for parachutes. Both of these are of vital interest to the parachute rigger.

14 CFR part 105, subpart C—Parachute Equipment and Packing

14 CFR part 105 deals with the use of parachutes in the United States. The following areas are of interest to parachute riggers:

Rigging Ethics

As parachute riggers gain additional experience, they are occasionally faced with situations that involve less than ideal circumstances. For example, they may be presented with a new jumper who has purchased old or damaged equipment that may or may not be airworthy; or it may be a pilot who purchased an acrobatic plane that came with a parachute that is far too small for his or her weight. These situations involve more than just the technical knowledge for a Parachute Rigger Certificate. In the case of the pilot above, depending on which TSO the parachute is certified, there may be a weight and speed limitation for the system. For example, TSO C23c category B has a limitation of 254-pound exit weight and a speed limitation of 150 knots. Imagine a pilot who weighs 225 pounds and his airplane regularly exceeds the 150- knot envelope during maneuvering. If this pilot brings a parachute to a parachute rigger for repacking, the first thing the parachute rigger should notice is the size of the pilot. When the parachute rigger inspects the parachute, he notices that it has a 22-foot diameter round canopy. The parachute rigger finds that with the pilot at 225 pounds, his clothes at 5 pounds, and the parachute at 20 pounds, he is at 250 pounds or just under the limit. However, in looking at the owner’s manual, the parachute rigger cannot find any information in the weight-carrying limit of the canopy. In addition, this particular parachute was made by a company that is no longer in business. The parachute appears to be in good condition visually but is 30 years old. In this situation, the parachute rigger is faced with a number of questionable areas that are detailed below.

Certification Specifications

The practical matter of the above pilot’s use of the parachute is that he is at the maximum limits of the certification specifications of that parachute. If he does not eat a big breakfast or gain much weight before using the parachute, he might stay under the weight limit. The speed limitation is probably exceeded on a regular basis during acrobatic maneuvers. If he needs to use the parachute at some point, there should be enough of a safety margin built into the design and testing of the parachute to be sufficient.

Pilot Versus Parachute Size

With 250 pounds under a 22-foot diameter canopy, the pilot probably drops from the sky at an excessive rate of descent. A common assumption in this situation is that it is unlikely he needs to use the parachute, but if he does, will it save his life?

Parachute Service Life

There is no service life on the parachute; it may be considered airworthy as long as it meets its TSO. While the parachute appears to be in good condition, there are not many nondestructive tests available to the parachute rigger in the field to make this determination. It may be possible to drop test the parachute, but the cost would probably outweigh the value of the system. It is up to the parachute rigger to make the determination as to the airworthiness of the parachute system. When the parachute rigger seals the parachute and signs the data card, the rigger is saying it is ready, thereby putting the customer’s life on the line.

What should the parachute rigger do? This is not just a theoretical situation—it is one that has been experienced many times by many parachute riggers. All of the above information plus economic factors complicate the parachute rigger’s decision. If the rigger does not pack the parachute, the pilot may take it down the road to another parachute rigger for a second opinion who may not have the same standards. An added factor is liability exposure. If the parachute rigger signs off on a questionable parachute and an accident occurs later, the rigger may be exposed to disciplinary action from the Administrator in addition to civil action in the courts. There are no hard and fast rules in these situations, but instead the parachute rigger must exercise the best judgment he or she can summon based on experience and the information at hand.

Most professional parachute riggers would refuse to pack the parachute described in the scenario above due to the age of the parachute, the size of the individual, and the potential use parameters. The conscientious rigger should give the pilot all of the facts concerning permissible exit weights and speeds and probable system performance, or lack thereof. Perhaps the pilot can be convinced to purchase a more appropriate emergency parachute, one that is certified for higher weight and speeds.

Chapter Summary

This first chapter summarized the need-to-know areas of 14 CFR and familiarized the rigger candidate with the 8610-2 Rating Application and other pertinent documents. Become familiar with 14 CFR online at http://www.ecfr.gov/cgi-bin/text-idx?SID=ea18c91ab7072a02b2cefba39393ebfc&t pl=/ecfrbrowse/Title14/14tab_02.tpl. There is an overview of the rigger’s responsibilities, limitations, and currency requirements. Becoming a well-rounded parachute rigger is a serious undertaking and requires independent study and determination to learn the history of parachutes, as well as current methods and materials.

The most important thought to keep in mind with regard to parachute rigging is that the purpose of the 180-day inspection and repack cycle is to inspect the parachute and all of its sub-assemblies, as well as the harness/container system and all of its sub-assemblies. Almost any parachute could theoretically remain packed for years and still open and function normally if stored in a perfect environment, as long as all the materials were chemically stable. History has shown however, that in rare instances fabrics can break down spontaneously and their chemical makeup can change, possibly compromising the integrity of the entire system. Therefore it is imperative that a thorough inspection is done on a frequent and regular basis by a competent rigger prior to repack. The conscientious rigger is the ultimate safety net between the jumper and the ground.