Front Matter

Weight-Shift Control Aircraft Flying Handbook U.S. Department of Transportation FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION Flight Standards Service

2008

Preface

The Weight-Shift Control (WSC) Aircraft Flying Handbook introduces the basic pilot knowledge and skills that are essential for piloting WSC aircraft. It introduces pilots to the broad spectrum of knowledge that is needed as they progress in their pilot training. This handbook is for student pilots, as well as those pursuing more advanced pilot certificates. Student pilots learning to fly WSC aircraft, certificated pilots preparing for additional WSC ratings or who desire to improve their flying proficiency and aeronautical knowledge, and commercial WSC pilots teaching WSC students how to fly should find this handbook helpful. This book introduces the prospective pilot to the realm of WSC flight and provides information and guidance to all WSC pilots in the performance of various maneuvers and procedures.

This handbook conforms to pilot training and certification concepts established by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). There are different ways of teaching, as well as performing flight procedures and maneuvers, and many variations in the explanations of aerodynamic theories and principles. This handbook adopts a selective method and concept to flying WSC aircraft. The discussions and explanations reflect the most commonly used practices and principles. Occasionally, the word “must” or similar language is used where the desired action is deemed critical. The use of such language is not intended to add to, interpret, or relieve a duty imposed by Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR). It is essential for persons using this handbook also to become familiar with and apply the pertinent parts of 14 CFR and the Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM). Performance standards for demonstrating competence required for pilot certification are prescribed in the appropriate WSC practical test standard.

This handbook is available for download, in PDF format, from the FAA website, www.faa.gov.

This handbook is published by the United States Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration, Airman Testing Standards Branch, AFS-630, P.O. Box 25082, Oklahoma City, OK 73125.

Comments regarding this publication should be sent, in email form, to the following address:

AFS630comments@faa.gov

Acknowledgments

The Weight-Shift Control Aircraft Flying Handbook was produced by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) with the assistance of Safety Research Corporation of America. The FAA wishes to acknowledge the following contributors for images provided and used throughout the handbook:

• Paul Hamilton of Adventure Productions
• AirBorne Australia
• Matt Liknaitzky of MGL Avionics
• Jon P. Thornburgh
• Tampa Bay Aerosports
• Gerry Charlebois of Birds in Paradise

Wills Wing, Inc.

Table of Contents

Preface ...................................................................iii

• Acknowledgments ..................................................v
• Table of Contents .................................................vii
• Chapter 1
• Introduction To Weight-Shift Control ................1-1

Introduction ....................................................................1-1

History............................................................................1-2

Hang Glider ................................................................1-4

Motorized Hang Gliders .............................................1-4

New Challenges..........................................................1-5

Light Sport Aircraft (LSA) ............................................1-6

• Weight-Shift Control Aircraft ....................................1-7
• Weight-Shift Control LSA Requirements ..................1-8
• Flight Operations and Pilot Certificates .........................1-8

Basic Pilot Eligibility .................................................1-9

Flight Safety Practices ...................................................1-9

Collision Avoidance ...................................................1-9

• Runway Incursion Avoidance ..................................1-10
• Positive Transfer of Controls ...................................1-10
• Aeronautical Decision-Making (ADM) .......................1-10

Avoiding Pilot Errors ...............................................1-11

Scenario-Based Training ..........................................1-12

Resource Management .............................................1-12

Use of Checklists ......................................................1-12

Medical Factors ...........................................................1-13

Fatigue ......................................................................1-13

Hypothermia ............................................................1-13

Medical Summary ....................................................1-14

Chapter Summary ........................................................1-14

• Chapter 2
• Aerodynamics ......................................................2-1

Introduction ....................................................................2-1

Aerodynamic Terms ...................................................2-1

WSC Wing Flexibility ...................................................2-6

Forces in Flight ..............................................................2-7

Dynamic Pressure (q) .................................................2-7

Lift ..............................................................................2-7

Drag ............................................................................2-8

Thrust .......................................................................2-10

Ground Effect ...........................................................2-11

Center of Gravity (CG) ............................................2-11

Axes of Rotation ..........................................................2-12

Lateral Axis—Pitch ..................................................2-12

Longitudinal Axis—Roll ..........................................2-13

Vertical Axis—Yaw .................................................2-13

Stability and Moments ................................................2-13

WSC Unique Airfoil and Wing Design....................2-13

Trim—Normal Stabilized Flight .............................2-13

High Angles of Attack..............................................2-13

Low Angles of Attack ..............................................2-14

Pitch Pressures..........................................................2-14

Roll Stability and Moments......................................2-16

Yaw Stability and Moments .....................................2-17

Thrust Moments .......................................................2-18

Stalls: Exceeding the Critical AOA .............................2-18

Whip Stall–Tuck–Tumble ........................................2-19

Weight, Load, and Speed ............................................2-20

Basic Propeller Principles ............................................2-20

Chapter Summary ........................................................2-20

• Chapter 3
• Components and Systems .................................3-1

Introduction ....................................................................3-1

Wing ..............................................................................3-2

Wing Frame Components ..........................................3-2

Keel ........................................................................3-3

Crossbar .................................................................3-4

Control Frame .........................................................3-4

• King Post With Wires-on-Top Wing Design..........3-5
• Topless Wings With Struts ....................................3-5
• Battens and Leading Edge Stiffener ......................3-7
• Sail Material and Panels ........................................3-7
• Pockets and Hardware ...........................................3-7
• Sail Attachment to Wing Frame ............................3-7

Cables and Hardware ....................................................3-7

Wing Systems .............................................................3-8

Reflex Systems .......................................................3-8

Roll Control System ..............................................3-9

Trim Systems..............................................................3-9

Ground Adjustable Trim Systems .........................3-9

Inflight Adjustable Trim Systems ........................3-10

Structure ...................................................................3-11

Landing Gear ...........................................................3-11

Landing Gear for Water and Snow .......................3-14

Electrical Systems ....................................................3-15

Ballistic Parachute ...................................................3-15

Flight Deck...................................................................3-16

Dashboards and Instrument Panels .........................3-16

Flight Instruments ................................................3-17

• Navigation Instruments ........................................3-17
• Engine Instruments ..............................................3-17
• Instrument Panel Arrangements ...............................3-17
• Communications ..................................................3-19

Powerplant System ..................................................3-19

Fuel System Components .....................................3-20

Engine and Gearbox .............................................3-20

The Propeller ........................................................3-20

Chapter Summary ........................................................3-22

• Chapter 4
• Powerplants .........................................................4-1

Introduction ....................................................................4-1

Reciprocating Engines ...................................................4-2

Two-Stroke Engines ...................................................4-2

Two-Stroke Process....................................................4-4

Four-Stroke Engines ...................................................4-6

Exhaust Systems ............................................................4-6

Two-Stroke Tuned Exhaust Systems .........................4-6

Four-Stroke Engine Exhaust Systems ........................4-7

Engine Warming ............................................................4-7

Two-Stroke Engine Warming ....................................4-7

Four-Stroke Engine Warming ....................................4-8

Gearboxes ......................................................................4-8

Propeller .........................................................................4-8

Fixed-Pitch Propeller..................................................4-8

Ground Adjustable-Pitch Propeller ............................4-9

Induction Systems ..........................................................4-9

Carburetor Systems ........................................................4-9

Two-Stroke Carburetor Jetting for Proper Mixture..4-10 Four-Stroke Mixture Settings ...................................4-10

Carburetor Icing .......................................................4-10

Fuel Injection Induction Systems.................................4-11

Ignition System ............................................................4-12

Combustion ..................................................................4-12

Fuel Systems ................................................................4-13

Fuel Pumps ...............................................................4-13

Fuel Plunger Primer .................................................4-14

Choke .......................................................................4-14

Fuel Bulb Primer ......................................................4-14

Fuel Gauges ..............................................................4-14

Fuel Filter .................................................................4-14

Fuel ...........................................................................4-14

Fuel Contamination ..................................................4-15

Refueling Procedures ...............................................4-15

Mixing Two-Stroke Oil and Fuel .............................4-16

Starting System ............................................................4-16

Oil Systems ..................................................................4-17

Engine Cooling Systems ..............................................4-17

Chapter Summary ........................................................4-18

• Chapter 5
• Preflight and Ground Operations.......................5-1

Introduction ....................................................................5-1

Where To Fly .................................................................5-2

Preflight Actions ............................................................5-3

Weather ..........................................................................5-3

Regional Weather .......................................................5-3

Local Conditions ........................................................5-4

Weight and Loading .......................................................5-7

Transporting ...................................................................5-7

Setting Up the WSC Aircraft ....................................5-8

Taking Down the WSC Aircraft ..............................5-12

Wing Tuning ................................................................5-14

Tuning the Wing To Fly Straight ............................5-14

Preflight Inspection ......................................................5-15

Certificates and Documents ......................................5-15

Routine Preflight Inspection .....................................5-16

Wing Inspection ....................................................5-17

Carriage Inspection ...............................................5-18

Powerplant Inspection ..........................................5-19

Cooling Systems ..................................................5-20

Exhaust Systems ...................................................5-20

Propeller Gearbox .................................................5-20

Throttle System .....................................................5-20

Flight Deck Inspection .............................................5-20

Fuel ...........................................................................5-20

Oil .............................................................................5-21

Ready Aircraft To Enter Flight Deck .......................5-22

Occupant Preflight Brief...........................................5-22

Flight Deck Management .........................................5-23

Checklist After Entering Flight Deck ...................5-23

Engine Start ..............................................................5-23

Taxiing .........................................................................5-24

Checklist for Taxi .................................................5-25

Before Takeoff Check ..............................................5-26

After Landing ...........................................................5-26

Chapter Summary ........................................................5-28

• Chapter 6
• Flight Manuevers .................................................6-1

Introduction ...................................................................6-1

Effects and the Use of the Controls ...............................6-2

Attitude Flying ..............................................................6-4

Straight-and-Level Flying ..............................................6-4

Trim Control .................................................................6-7

Level Turns ...................................................................6-7

Coordinating the Controls ..........................................6-8

Climbs and Climbing Turns .........................................6-12

Descents and Descending Turns ..................................6-14

Gliding Turns ..........................................................6-16

Pitch and Power ..........................................................6-16

Steep Turn Performance Maneuver .............................6-16

Energy Management ....................................................6-19

Slow Flight and Stalls ..................................................6-20

Slow Flight ...............................................................6-20

Stalls .........................................................................6-21

Power-Off Stall Manuever .......................................6-23

Whip Stall and Tumble Awareness..............................6-24

A Scenario ................................................................6-24

Chapter Summary ........................................................6-26

• Chapter 7
• Takeoff and Departure Climbs ...........................7-1

Introduction ...................................................................7-1

Terms and Definitions ................................................7-2

Prior to Takeoff ..............................................................7-2

Normal Takeoff ..............................................................7-2

Takeoff Roll ...............................................................7-3

Lift-Off .......................................................................7-3

Initial Climb ...............................................................7-4

Crosswind Takeoff .........................................................7-6

Takeoff Roll ...............................................................7-6

Rotation and Lift-Off .................................................7-6

Initial Climb ...............................................................7-6

Ground Effect on Takeoff ..............................................7-7

Short Field Takeoff and Steepest Angle Climb .............7-8

Takeoff Roll ...............................................................7-9

Lift-Off and Climb Out ..............................................7-9

Soft/Rough Field Takeoff and Climb ..........................7-10

Takeoff Roll .............................................................7-12

Lift-Off and Initial Climb .........................................7-12

Rejected Takeoff/Engine Failure .................................7-12

Noise Abatement..........................................................7-13

Chapter Summary ........................................................7-13

• Chapter 8
• The National Airspace System ...........................8-1

Introduction ....................................................................8-1

Uncontrolled Airspace ...................................................8-2

Class G Airspace ........................................................8-2

Controlled Airspace .......................................................8-4

Class E Airspace.........................................................8-4

Towered Airport Operations ......................................8-6

Class D Airspace ........................................................8-6

Class C Airspace ........................................................8-6

Class B Airspace ........................................................8-7

Airspace Above 10,000' MSL and Below 18,000' .....8-8

Class A Airspace ........................................................8-8

Special Use Airspace .....................................................8-8

Prohibited Areas .........................................................8-8

Restricted Areas .........................................................8-9

Warning Areas............................................................8-9

Military Operations Areas (MOAs) ...........................8-9

Alert Areas ...............................................................8-10

Controlled Firing Areas ............................................8-10

Parachute Jump Areas ..............................................8-11

Other Airspace Areas ...................................................8-11

Local Airport Advisory ............................................8-11

• Military Training Routes (MTRs) ............................8-11
• Temporary Flight Restrictions (TFRs) .....................8-11
• Terminal Radar Service Areas (TRSA) ...................8-12
• National Security Areas (NSAs) ..............................8-12

Published VFR Routes .................................................8-12

Flight Over Charted U.S. Wildlife Refuges, Parks, and Forest Service Areas...................................8-12

WSC Operations ..........................................................8-12

WSC and Air Traffic Control ...................................8-12

Navigating the Airspace ...........................................8-13

Chapter Summary ........................................................8-13

• Chapter 9
• Ground Reference Maneuvers ...........................9-1

Introduction ....................................................................9-1

Maneuvering by Reference to Ground Objects .............9-2

Drift and Ground Track Control ....................................9-2

Rectangular Course ........................................................9-4

S-Turns Across a Road ..................................................9-7

Turns Around a Point .....................................................9-9

Chapter Summary ........................................................9-12

• Chapter 10
• Airport Traffic Patterns .....................................10-1

Introduction .................................................................10-1

Airport Operations .......................................................10-2

Standard Airport Traffic Patterns .................................10-2

Chapter Summary ........................................................10-8

• Chapter 11
• Approaches and Landings ...............................11-1

Introduction ..................................................................11-1

Normal (Calm Wind) Approaches and Landings ........11-2

Throttle Use ..............................................................11-2

Base Leg ...................................................................11-2

Estimating Height and Movement............................11-5

Roundout (Flare) ......................................................11-6

Touchdown ...............................................................11-7

After-Landing Roll ...................................................11-7

• Effect of Headwinds During Final Approach ..............11-8
• Stabilized Approach Concept ....................................11-10
• Go-Around (Rejected Landings)................................11-13

Power ......................................................................11-13

Short and Soft Field Landing Techniques .................11-14

Short-Field Approaches and Landings ...................11-14

Soft and Rough Field Approaches and Landings ...11-15 Power-on Approach and Landing for Turbulant Air ....................................................11-16

Crosswind Approaches and Landings ........................11-17

Crosswind Pattern Procedures ...............................11-17

Effects and Hazards of High Crosswinds for Approaches and Landings ................................11-17

Crosswind Landings ...............................................11-19

Maximum Crosswind Velocities ............................11-19

Steep Approaches.......................................................11-20

Steep Angle ............................................................11-21

Alternating Turns ...................................................11-21

• Power-Off Accuracy Approaches ..............................11-21
• 90° Power-Off Approach .......................................11-22
• 180° Power-Off Approach .....................................11-23
• 360° Power-Off Approach .....................................11-25
• Emergency Approaches and Landings

(Simulated Engine Out) .............................................11-26

Faulty Approaches and Landings...............................11-27

Low Final Approach...............................................11-27

High Final Approach ..............................................11-27

Slow Final Approach ..............................................11-27

Use of Power ..........................................................11-28

High Roundout .......................................................11-28

• Late or Rapid Roundout .........................................11-28
• Floating During Roundout .....................................11-28
• Ballooning During Roundout .................................11-29
• Bouncing During Touchdown ................................11-29

Porpoising...............................................................11-29

Wing Rising After Touchdown ..............................11-30

Hard Landing..........................................................11-30

Chapter Summary ......................................................11-30

• Chapter 12
• Night Operations ...............................................12-1

Introduction ..................................................................12-1

Pilot Requirements .......................................................12-2

Equipment and Lighting ..............................................12-2

Pilot Equipment ........................................................12-3

Airport and Navigation Lighting Aids .....................12-4

Night Vision .................................................................12-5

Unique WSC Flight Characteristics .............................12-7

Night Illusions..............................................................12-7

Preparation and Preflight..............................................12-8

Starting, Taxiing, and Runup .......................................12-8

Takeoff and Climb .......................................................12-9

Orientation and Navigation ........................................12-10

Approaches and Landings ..........................................12-11

Night Emergencies .....................................................12-12

Chapter Summary ......................................................12-13

• Chapter 13
• Abnormal and Emergency Procedures ...........13-1

Introduction ..................................................................13-1

Ballistic Parachute System (BPS) ................................13-2

Procedures for Using a BPS .....................................13-3

Emergency Landings ...................................................13-3

Types of Emergency Landings .................................13-3

Psychological Hazards .............................................13-3

Basic Safety Concepts ..............................................13-4

Attitude and Sink Rate Control ................................13-5

Terrain Selection ......................................................13-6

Approach ..................................................................13-6

Terrain Types ...........................................................13-7

• Water Landings (Ditching).......................................13-8
• Emergency Equipment and Survival Gear ...............13-8
• Engine Failure After Takeoff ...................................13-9

Emergency Descents ..................................................13-10

Inflight Fire ................................................................13-10

Engine Fire .............................................................13-10

Electrical Fires........................................................13-12

System Malfunctions .................................................13-12

Electrical System ....................................................13-12

Pitot-Static System .................................................13-12

• Landing Gear Malfunction .....................................13-13
• Inadvertant Propeller Strike ...................................13-13
• Stuck or Runaway Throttle ....................................13-13
• Abnormal Engine Instrument Indications ..............13-13
• Weather Related Emergencies ...................................13-15

High Winds and Strong Turbulence .......................13-15

High Winds and Turbulence During

Cruise Flight .......................................................13-15

High Winds and Turbulence During Takeoffs and Landings .......................................................13-15

High Winds During Taxi ....................................13-15

Inadvertent Flight into Instrument Meteorological Conditions (IMC) ...................................................13-16

Recognition .........................................................13-17

Maintaining Aircraft Control ..............................13-17

Attitude Control ..................................................13-18

Turns ...................................................................13-18

Chapter Summary ......................................................13-19

Glossary ..............................................................G-1

Index ......................................................................I-1