Front Matter

FAA-H-8083-21BHelicopter Flying Handbook

Helicopter Flying Handbook U.S. Department of Transportation FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION Flight Standards Service 2019

Preface

The Helicopter Flying Handbook is designed as a technical manual for applicants who are preparing for their private, commercial, or flight instructor pilot certificates with a helicopter class rating. Certificated flight instructors may find this handbook a valuable training aid, since detailed coverage of aerodynamics, flight controls, systems, performance, flight maneuvers, emergencies, and aeronautical decision-making is included. Topics such as weather, navigation, radio navigation and communications, use of flight information publications, and regulations are available in other Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) publications.

This handbook conforms to pilot training and certification concepts established by the FAA. There are different ways of teaching, as well as performing, flight procedures and maneuvers, and many variations in the explanations of aerodynamic theories and principles. This handbook adopts a selective method and concept to flying helicopters. The discussion and explanations reflect the most commonly used practices and principles. Occasionally the word “must” or similar language is used where the desired action is deemed critical. The use of such language is not intended to add to, interpret, or relieve a duty imposed by Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR). Persons working towards a helicopter rating are advised to review the references from the applicable practical test standards (FAA-S-8081-3 for recreational applicants, FAA-S-8081-15 for private applicants, and FAA-S-8081-16 for commercial applicants). Resources for study include FAA-H-8083-25, Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge, and FAA-H-8083-1, Weight and Balance Handbook, as these documents contain basic material not duplicated herein. All beginning applicants should refer to FAA-H-8083-25, Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge, for study and basic library reference.

It is essential for persons using this handbook to become familiar with and apply the pertinent parts of 14 CFR and the Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM). The AIM is available online at www.faa.gov. The current Flight Standards Service airman training and testing material and learning statements for all airman certificates and ratings can be obtained from www.faa.gov.

This handbook supersedes FAA-H-8083-21A, Helicopter Flying Handbook, dated 2012. Gyroplane information can be found in the FAA-H-8083-20, Gyroplane Flying Handbook.

This handbook is available for download, in PDF format, from www.faa.gov.

This handbook is published by the United States Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration, Airman Testing Branch, P.O. Box 25082, Oklahoma City, OK 73125.

Comments regarding this publication should be emailed to AFS630comments@faa.gov.

Acknowledgments

The Helicopter Flying Handbook was produced by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) with the assistance of Safety Research Corporation of America (SRCA). The FAA wishes to acknowledge the following contributors:

Federation of American Scientists (www.fas.org) for rotor system content used in Chapter 5 Kaman Aerospace, Helicopters Division for image of Kaman used in Chapter 5 Burkhard Domke (www.b-domke.de) for images of rotor systems (Chapters 1 and 4) New Zealand Civil Aviation Authority for image of safety procedures for approaching a helicopter (Chapter 9) Shawn Coyle of Eagle Eye Solutions, LLC for images and content used in Chapter 10 Dr. Pat Veillette for information used on decision-making (Chapter 13)

Additional appreciation is extended to the Helicopter Association International (HAI), United States Helicopter Safety Team (USHST), Leonardo Helicopters, Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association (AOPA), and the AOPA Air Safety Foundation for their technical support and input.

Table of Contents

Preface.....................................................................v

• Acknowledgments ................................................vii
• Chapter 1
• Introduction to the Helicopter ............................1-1

Introduction ....................................................................1-1

Turbine Age ...................................................................1-2

Uses ................................................................................1-3

Rotor System..................................................................1-3

Rotor Configurations ..................................................1-4

Tandem Rotor ........................................................1-4

Coaxial Rotors .......................................................1-4

Intermeshing Rotors................................................1-4

Tail Rotor ...................................................................1-5

Controlling Flight...........................................................1-5

Cyclic ........................................................................1-5

Collective ...................................................................1-5

Antitorque Pedals .......................................................1-6

Throttle ......................................................................1-6

Flight Conditions ...........................................................1-6

Chapter Summary ..........................................................1-7

• Chapter 2
• Aerodynamics of Flight.......................................2-1

Introduction ....................................................................2-1

Forces Acting on the Aircraft ........................................2-2

Lift ..............................................................................2-3

Bernoulli’s Principle ...............................................2-3

Venturi Flow ...........................................................2-4

Newton’s Third Law of Motion ..............................2-5

Weight ........................................................................2-5

Thrust .........................................................................2-6

Drag ............................................................................2-6

Profile Drag ............................................................2-6

Induced Drag ..........................................................2-7

Parasite Drag ...........................................................2-7

Total Drag ...............................................................2-7

Airfoil ............................................................................2-7

Airfoil Terminology and Definitions .........................2-7

Airfoil Types ..............................................................2-8

Symmetrical Airfoil ................................................2-8

Nonsymmetrical Airfoil (Cambered) ......................2-8

Blade Twist ...............................................................2-9

Rotor Blade and Hub Definitions ...........................2-9

Airflow and Reactions in the Rotor Disk.......................2-9

Relative Wind .............................................................2-9

• Rotational Relative Wind (Tip-Path Plane)................2-9
• Resultant Relative Wind...........................................2-11
• Induced Flow (Downwash) ..................................2-11

Rotor Blade Angles ..................................................2-12

Angle of Incidence ................................................2-12

Angle of Attack.....................................................2-13

Powered Flight .............................................................2-14

Hovering Flight ............................................................2-14

Translating Tendency (Drift)....................................2-15

Pendular Action ........................................................2-15

Coning ......................................................................2-16

Coriolis Effect (Law of Conservation of Angular

Momentum) .............................................................2-16

Gyroscopic Precession .............................................2-17

Vertical Flight ..............................................................2-17

Forward Flight .............................................................2-17

Airflow in Forward Flight .......................................2-19

Advancing Blade .................................................2-19

Retreating Blade ..................................................2-19

Dissymmetry of Lift .............................................2-20

Translational Lift ......................................................2-21

Effective Translational Lift (ETL)........................2-22

Translational Thrust ..............................................2-22

Induced Flow ............................................................2-23

Transverse Flow Effect ............................................2-23

Sideward Flight ............................................................2-23

Rearward Flight ...........................................................2-24

Turning Flight ..............................................................2-24

Autorotation .................................................................2-25

Vertical Autorotation................................................2-25

Autorotation (Forward Flight) ..................................2-26

Chapter Summary ........................................................2-26

• Chapter 3
• Helicopter Flight Controls ..................................3-1

Introduction ....................................................................3-1

Collective Pitch Control.................................................3-2

Throttle Control .............................................................3-2

Governor/Correlator ......................................................3-2

Cyclic Pitch Control.......................................................3-3

Antitorque Pedals ...........................................................3-4

Heading Control .........................................................3-4

Chapter Summary ..........................................................3-5

Chapter 4

Helicopter Components, Sections, and Systems ........................................................4-1

Introduction ....................................................................4-1

Airframe .........................................................................4-1

Fuselage .........................................................................4-2

Main Rotor System ........................................................4-2

Semirigid Rotor System .............................................4-2

Rigid Rotor System ....................................................4-3

Fully Articulated Rotor System..................................4-4

Tandem Rotor .............................................................4-6

Coaxial Rotors ............................................................4-6

Intermeshing Rotors ...................................................4-6

Swash Plate Assembly ...................................................4-6

Freewheeling Unit..........................................................4-7

Antitorque System .........................................................4-7

Fenestron ....................................................................4-8

NOTAR® ....................................................................................................4-8

Antitorque Drive Systems ..............................................4-8

Engines...........................................................................4-8

Reciprocating Engines................................................4-8

Turbine Engines .........................................................4-8

Compressor ...........................................................4-10

Combustion Chamber ...........................................4-10

Turbine ..................................................................4-10

Accessory Gearbox ...............................................4-10

Transmission System ...................................................4-10

Main Rotor Transmission .........................................4-11

Dual Tachometers .................................................4-11

Structural Design ..................................................4-12

Clutch .......................................................................4-12

Belt Drive Clutch ..................................................4-12

Centrifugal Clutch ................................................4-13

Fuel Systems ................................................................4-13

Fuel Supply System ..................................................4-13

Engine Fuel Control System ....................................4-14

Carburetor Ice ...........................................................4-14

Fuel Injection............................................................4-15

Electrical Systems ........................................................4-16

Hydraulics ....................................................................4-16

Stability Augmentations Systems ................................4-17

Force Trim ................................................................4-17

Active Augmentation Systems ................................4-17

Autopilot...................................................................4-18

Environmental Systems ...............................................4-18

Anti-Icing Systems.......................................................4-19

Engine Anti-Ice ........................................................4-19

Airframe Anti-Ice .....................................................4-19

Deicing ....................................................................4-19

Chapter Summary ........................................................4-19

• Chapter 5
• Rotorcraft Flight Manual .....................................5-1

Introduction ....................................................................5-1

Preliminary Pages ..........................................................5-2

General Information (Section 1) ....................................5-2

Operating Limitations (Section 2) .................................5-2

Instrument Markings ..................................................5-2

Airspeed Limitations ..................................................5-2

Altitude Limitations ...................................................5-3

Rotor Limitations .......................................................5-3

Powerplant Limitations ..............................................5-3

Weight and Loading Distribution ...............................5-4

Flight Limitations .......................................................5-4

Placards ......................................................................5-4

Emergency Procedures (Section 3) ................................5-4

Normal Procedures (Section 4) ......................................5-5

Performance (Section 5) ................................................5-5

• Weight and Balance (Section 6) ....................................5-5
• Aircraft and Systems Description (Section 7) ...............5-5
• Handling, Servicing, and Maintenance (Section 8) .......5-5

Supplements (Section 9) ................................................5-6

Safety and Operational Tips (Section 10) ......................5-6

Chapter Summary ..........................................................5-6

• Chapter 6
• Weight and Balance ............................................6-1

Introduction ....................................................................6-1

Weight ............................................................................6-2

Basic Empty Weight...................................................6-2

Maximum Gross Weight ............................................6-2

Weight Limitations .....................................................6-2

Balance...........................................................................6-2

Center of Gravity ........................................................6-2

CG Forward of Forward Limit ...................................6-3

CG Aft of Aft Limit ...................................................6-3

Lateral Balance ...........................................................6-3

Weight and Balance Calculations ..................................6-4

Reference Datum ........................................................6-4

Chapter Summary ..........................................................6-4

• Chapter 7
• Helicopter Performance ......................................7-1

Introduction ....................................................................7-1

Factors Affecting Performance ......................................7-2

Moisture (Humidity) ..................................................7-2

Weight ........................................................................7-2

Winds .........................................................................7-2

Performance Charts ........................................................7-2

• Height/Velocity Diagram ...........................................7-2
• The Effect of Weight Versus Density Altitude.......7-3
• Autorotational Performance .......................................7-4

Hovering Performance ...............................................7-4

• Sample Hover Problem 1 ........................................7-5
• Sample Hover Problem 2 ........................................7-5
• Sample Hover Problem 3 ........................................7-6

Climb Performance.....................................................7-6

Sample Cruise or Level Flight Problem .................7-8

Sample Climb Problem ...........................................7-8

Chapter Summary ..........................................................7-9

• Chapter 8
• Ground Procedures and Flight

Preparations.........................................................8-1

Introduction ....................................................................8-1

Preflight..........................................................................8-2

• Minimum Equipment Lists (MELs) and
• Operations with Inoperative Equipment.....................8-2
• Engine Start and Rotor Engagement ..............................8-3
• Rotor Safety Considerations.......................................8-3

Aircraft Servicing .......................................................8-4

Safety in and Around Helicopters ..................................8-4

Ramp Attendants and Aircraft Servicing

Personnel ....................................................................8-4

Passengers ..................................................................8-4

Pilot at the Flight Controls .........................................8-6

After Landing and Securing .......................................8-6

Chapter Summary ..........................................................8-6

• Chapter 9
• Basic Flight Maneuvers ......................................9-1

Introduction ....................................................................9-1

The Four Fundamentals .................................................9-2

Guidelines ..................................................................9-2

Straight-and-Level Flight ...............................................9-3

Technique ...................................................................9-3

Common Errors ..........................................................9-3

Turns ..............................................................................9-3

Technique ...................................................................9-3

Slips ............................................................................9-4

Skids ...........................................................................9-4

Normal Climb ................................................................9-5

Technique ...................................................................9-5

Common Errors ..........................................................9-5

Normal Descent .............................................................9-5

Technique ...................................................................9-5

Common Errors ..........................................................9-6

Vertical Takeoff to a Hover ...........................................9-6

Technique ...................................................................9-6

Common Errors ..........................................................9-6

Hovering ........................................................................9-7

Technique ...................................................................9-7

Common Errors ..........................................................9-7

Hovering Turn................................................................9-7

Technique ...................................................................9-7

Common Errors ..........................................................9-9

Hovering—Forward Flight ............................................9-9

Technique ...................................................................9-9

Common Errors ..........................................................9-9

Hovering—Sideward Flight ...........................................9-9

Technique ...................................................................9-9

Common Errors ........................................................9-10

Hovering—Rearward Flight ........................................9-10

Technique .................................................................9-10

Common Errors ........................................................9-10

Taxiing .........................................................................9-10

Hover Taxi................................................................9-10

Air Taxi ....................................................................9-10

Technique .............................................................9-11

Common Errors ....................................................9-11

Surface Taxi .............................................................9-11

Technique .............................................................9-11

Common Errors ....................................................9-11

Normal Takeoff from a Hover .....................................9-12

Technique .................................................................9-12

Common Errors ........................................................9-12

Normal Takeoff from the Surface ................................9-13

Technique .................................................................9-13

Common Errors ........................................................9-13

Crosswind Considerations During Takeoffs ................9-13

Ground Reference Maneuvers .....................................9-13

Rectangular Course ..................................................9-14

Technique .............................................................9-14

Common Errors ....................................................9-15

S-Turns .....................................................................9-15

Technique .............................................................9-15

Common Errors ....................................................9-16

Turns Around a Point ...............................................9-16

Technique .............................................................9-16

Common Errors ...................................................9-17

Traffic Patterns.............................................................9-17

Approaches ..................................................................9-18

Normal Approach to a Hover ...................................9-19

Technique .............................................................9-19

Common Errors ....................................................9-19

Normal Approach to the Surface ..............................9-20

Technique .............................................................9-20

Common Errors ....................................................9-20

Crosswind During Approaches ................................9-20

Go-Around ...................................................................9-20

Chapter Summary ........................................................9-20

• Chapter 10
• Advanced Flight Maneuvers .............................10-1

Introduction ..................................................................10-1

Reconnaissance Procedures .........................................10-2

High Reconnaissance ...............................................10-2

Low Reconnaissance ................................................10-2

Ground Reconnaissance ...........................................10-2

Maximum Performance Takeoff ..................................10-2

Technique .................................................................10-3

Common Errors ........................................................10-3

Running/Rolling Takeoff .............................................10-3

Technique .................................................................10-4

Common Errors ........................................................10-4

Rapid Deceleration or Quick Stop ..............................10-4

Technique .................................................................10-4

Common Errors ........................................................10-5

Steep Approach ............................................................10-5

Technique .................................................................10-6

Common Errors ........................................................10-6

Shallow Approach and Running/Roll-On Landing......10-6

Technique .................................................................10-7

Common Errors ........................................................10-7

Slope Operations ..........................................................10-7

Slope Landing ..........................................................10-8

Technique .............................................................10-8

Common Errors ....................................................10-8

Slope Takeoff ...........................................................10-8

Technique .............................................................10-9

Common Errors ....................................................10-9

Confined Area Operations ...........................................10-9

Approach ................................................................10-10

Takeoff ..................................................................10-10

Common Errors ......................................................10-10

Pinnacle and Ridgeline Operations ............................10-11

Approach and Landing ...........................................10-11

Takeoff ...................................................................10-11

Common Errors ......................................................10-12

Chapter Summary ......................................................10-12

• Chapter 11
• Helicopter Emergencies and Hazards .............11-1

Introduction ..................................................................11-1

Autorotation .................................................................11-2

RPM Control ............................................................11-3

Risk Management during Autorotation Training ....11-3

Straight-In Autorotation ...........................................11-4

Technique (How to Practice) ................................11-4

Common Errors ....................................................11-5

Autorotation with Turns ...........................................11-6

• Common Errors ....................................................11-7
• Practice Autorotation with a Power Recovery ........11-7
• Technique (How to Practice) ................................11-7
• Common Errors ....................................................11-8
• Practicing Power Failure in a Hover ........................11-8
• Technique (How to Practice) ................................11-8
• Common Errors ....................................................11-9

Vortex Ring State ........................................................11-9

Common Errors—Traditional Recovery ................11-10

Common Errors—Vuichard Recovery ...................11-10

Retreating Blade Stall ................................................11-10

Common Errors ......................................................11-11

Ground Resonance .....................................................11-11

Dynamic Rollover ......................................................11-11

Critical Conditions .................................................11-12

Cyclic Trim.............................................................11-12

Normal Takeoffs and Landings ..............................11-13

Slope Takeoffs and Landings .................................11-13

Use of Collective ....................................................11-13

Precautions .............................................................11-13

Low-G Conditions and Mast Bumping ......................11-14

Low Rotor RPM and Rotor Stall ...............................11-15

System Malfunctions .................................................11-16

• Antitorque System Failure......................................11-16
• Landing—Stuck Left Pedal ....................................11-17
• Landing—Stuck Neutral or Right Pedal ...............11-17
• Loss of Tail Rotor Effectiveness (LTE) .................11-18
• Main Rotor Disk Interference (285–315°)..........11-20
• Weathercock Stability (120–240°) .....................11-20
• Tail Rotor Vortex Ring State (210–330°)...........11-21

LTE at Altitude ...................................................11-21

Reducing the Onset of LTE ................................11-21

Recovery Technique (Uncontrolled

Right Yaw)..........................................................11-21

Main Drive Shaft or Clutch Failure........................11-21

Hydraulic Failure....................................................11-22

Governor or Fuel Control Failure...........................11-22

Abnormal Vibration ...............................................11-22

• Low-Frequency Vibrations .................................11-22
• Medium- and High-Frequency Vibrations..........11-23
• Tracking and Balance .........................................11-23
• Multiengine Emergency Operations ..........................11-23

Single-Engine Failure ............................................11-23

Dual-Engine Failure ..............................................11-23

Lost Procedures..........................................................11-23

VFR Flight into Instrument Meteorological

Conditions ..................................................................11-24

Emergency Equipment and Survival Gear .................11-27

Chapter Summary ......................................................11-27

• Chapter 12
• Night Operations ...............................................12-1

Introduction ..................................................................12-1

Visual Deficiencies ......................................................12-2

Night Myopia ...........................................................12-2

Hyperopia .................................................................12-2

Astigmatism .............................................................12-2

Presbyopia ................................................................12-2

Vision in Flight ............................................................12-2

Visual Acuity............................................................12-3

The Eye.....................................................................12-4

Cones ........................................................................12-4

Rods ..........................................................................12-4

Night Vision .................................................................12-4

Night Scanning .........................................................12-4

Obstruction Detection...............................................12-5

Aircraft Lighting.......................................................12-6

Visual Illusions .........................................................12-6

Relative-Motion Illusion ..........................................12-6

Confusion with Ground Lights .................................12-6

Reversible Perspective Illusion ................................12-6

Flicker Vertigo .........................................................12-7

Night Flight ..................................................................12-7

Preflight ....................................................................12-7

Cockpit Lights ..........................................................12-8

Engine Starting and Rotor Engagement ...................12-8

Taxi Technique .........................................................12-8

Night Traffic Patterns ...............................................12-8

Takeoff .....................................................................12-8

En Route Procedures ................................................12-9

• Collision Avoidance at Night ...................................12-9
• Approach and Landing .............................................12-9
• Illusions Leading to Landing Errors.........................12-9
• Featureless Terrain Illusion ................................12-10
• Atmospheric Illusions .........................................12-10
• Ground Lighting Illusions...................................12-10
• Helicopter Night VFR Operations .............................12-10

Chapter Summary ......................................................12-10

• Chapter 13
• Effective Aeronautical Decision-Making .........13-1

Introduction ..................................................................13-1

Aeronautical Decision-Making (ADM) .......................13-2

Scenario ....................................................................13-2

Trescott Tips .............................................................13-3

• The Decision-Making Process..................................13-4
• Defining the Problem ............................................13-4
• Choosing a Course of Action ................................13-4
• Implementing the Decision and Evaluating the

Outcome ................................................................13-4

Decision-Making Models .........................................13-5

Pilot Self-Assessment ..................................................13-6

Curiosity: Healthy or Harmful?................................13-6

The PAVE Checklist ................................................13-6

Single-Pilot Resource Management.............................13-7

Risk Management ........................................................13-9

Four Risk Elements ..................................................13-9

Assessing Risk........................................................13-10

Using the 3P Model to Form Good Safety

Habits .....................................................................13-11

Workload or Task Management.................................13-12

Situational Awareness................................................13-13

Obstacles to Maintaining Situational

Awareness .............................................................13-13

Operational Pitfalls .................................................13-15

Controlled Flight Into Terrain (CFIT)

Awareness ..................................................................13-15

Automation Management...........................................13-18

Chapter Summary ......................................................13-18

Glossary ..............................................................G-1

Index ......................................................................I-1