Front Matter

Aviation Maintenance Technician Handbook–General U.S. Department of Transportation FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION Flight Standards Service

2023

Preface

The Aviation Maintenance Technician Handbook–General (FAA-H-8083-30B) was developed as one of a series of three handbooks for persons preparing for mechanic certification with airframe or powerplant ratings, or both. It is intended that this handbook will provide basic information on principles, fundamentals, and technical procedures in the subject matter areas common to both the airframe and powerplant ratings. Emphasis in this volume is on theory and methods of application. The handbook is designed to aid students enrolled in a formal course of instruction preparing for FAA certification as a maintenance technician as well as for current technicians who wish to improve their knowledge. This volume contains information on mathematics, aircraft drawings, weight and balance, aircraft materials, processes and tools, physics, electricity, inspection, ground operations, and FAA regulations governing the certification and work of maintenance technicians. New to this volume is a section addressing how successful aviation maintenance technicians incorporate knowledge and awareness of ethics, professionalism and human factors in the field.

Because there are so many different types of airframes and powerplants in use today, it is reasonable to expect that differences exist in the components and systems of each. To avoid undue repetition, the practice of using representative systems and units is implemented throughout the handbook. Subject matter treatment is from a generalized point of view, and should be supplemented by reference to manufacturers’ manuals or other publications if more detail is desired. This handbook is not intended to replace, substitute for, or supersede official regulations or the manufacturers’ instructions.

The companion handbooks to Aviation Maintenance Technician Handbook–General (FAA-H-8083-30B) are the Aviation Maintenance Technician Handbook–Airframe (FAA-H-8083-31 (as amended)), and the Aviation Maintenance Technician Handbook–Powerplant (FAA-H-8083-32 (as amended)).

This handbook is available for download, in pdf format, from www.faa.gov. Please visit this website for the latest version of all FAA handbooks.

This handbook is published by the U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration, Airman Testing Standards Branch, AFS-630, P.O. Box 25082, Oklahoma City, OK 73125.

Comments regarding this publication should be emailed to afs630comments@faa.gov.

Acknowledgments

The Aviation Maintenance Technician Handbook–General (FAA-H-8083-30B) was produced by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). The FAA wishes to acknowledge the following contributors:

• Table of Contents
• Chapter 1
• Safety, Ground Operations, & Servicing ...........1-1

Shop Safety ........................................................... 1-1

Electrical Safety ................................................. 1-1

Physiological Safety ........................................ 1-1

Fire Safety ....................................................... 1-1

• Safety Around Compressed Gases ................... 1-2
• Safety Around Hazardous Materials .................. 1-2
• Safety Around Machine Tools ............................. 1-2

Flight Line Safety ................................................... 1-4

• Hearing Protection ............................................. 1-4
• Foreign Object Damage (FOD) .......................... 1-4
• Safety Around Airplanes ..................................... 1-4
• Safety Around Helicopters .................................. 1-4

Fire Safety .......................................................... 1-5

Fire Protection ....................................................... 1-5

• Requirements for Fire to Occur .......................... 1-5
• Classification of Fires ......................................... 1-5
• Types and Operation of Shop and Flight Line
• Fire Extinguishers .............................................. 1-5
• Inspection of Fire Extinguishers ......................... 1-7
• Identifying Fire Extinguishers ............................. 1-8
• Using Fire Extinguishers .................................... 1-8
• Tie-Down Procedures ............................................ 1-8
• Preparation of Aircraft ........................................ 1-8
• Tie-Down Procedures for Land Planes .............. 1-8
• Securing Light Aircraft ..................................... 1-8
• Securing Heavy Aircraft .................................. 1-8
• Tie-Down Procedures for Seaplanes ................. 1-8
• Tie-Down Procedures for Ski Planes ................ 1-9
• Tie-Down Procedures for Helicopters .............. 1-10

Procedures for Securing Weight-Shift-Control ..1-11 Procedures for Securing Powered Parachutes .1-11 Ground Movement of Aircraft................................1-11

• Engine Starting and Operation ..........................1-11
• Reciprocating Engines ......................................1-11
• Hand Cranking Engines ................................... 1-13
• Extinguishing Engine Fires ............................... 1-14
• Turboprop Engines ........................................... 1-14
• Turboprop Starting Procedures ........................ 1-15
• Turbofan Engines ............................................. 1-15
• Starting a Turbofan Engine .............................. 1-15
• Auxiliary Power Units (APUs) ........................... 1-16
• Unsatisfactory Turbine Engine Starts .............. 1-17

Hot Start ........................................................ 1-17

• False or Hung Start ....................................... 1-17
• Engine Fails to Start ...................................... 1-17
• Towing of Aircraft .............................................. 1-17

Taxiing Aircraft .................................................. 1-19

Taxi Signals ................................................... 1-20

Servicing Aircraft.................................................. 1-20

• Servicing Aircraft Air/Nitrogen Oil & Fluids ....... 1-20
• Ground Support Equipment ............................ 1-21
• Electric Ground Power Units ......................... 1-21
• Hydraulic Ground Power Units ...................... 1-22
• Ground Support Air Units .............................. 1-23
• Ground Air Heating and Air Conditioning ..... 1-24
• Oxygen Servicing Equipment ........................... 1-24
• Oxygen Hazards .............................................. 1-25
• Fuel Servicing of Aircraft...................................... 1-25
• Types of Fuel and Identification ....................... 1-25
• Contamination Control ..................................... 1-25
• Fueling Hazards .............................................. 1-26
• Fueling Procedures .......................................... 1-26

Defueling .......................................................... 1-28

• Chapter 2
• Regulations, Maintenance Forms, Records, &

Publications .........................................................2-1

• Overview — Title 14 of the Code of Federal
• Regulations (14 CFR) ............................................ 2-1
• Title 14 CFR Part 3—General Requirements ..... 2-1
• Maintenance-Related Regulations ..................... 2-3
• 14 CFR Part 1—Definitions and
• Abbreviations ................................................. 2-3

14 CFR Part 21—Certification Procedures for Products and Articles ................................. 2-3

14 CFR Part 23—Airworthiness Standards:

Normal, Utility, Acrobatic, and Commuter

Category Airplanes .......................................... 2-4

14 CFR Part 25—Airworthiness Standards:

Transport Category Airplanes ......................... 2-5

14 CFR Part 27—Airworthiness Standards:

Normal Category Rotorcraft ............................ 2-5

14 CFR Part 29—Airworthiness Standards:

Transport Category Rotorcraft ....................... 2-5

14 CFR Part 33—Airworthiness Standards:

Aircraft Engines ............................................... 2-8

14 CFR Part 35—Airworthiness Standards:

Propellers ........................................................ 2-8 14 CFR Part 39—Airworthiness Directives ..... 2-8

• 14 CFR Part 43—Maintenance, Preventive
• Maintenance, Rebuilding, and Alteration ........ 2-8
• 14 CFR Part 45—Identification and
• Registration Marking ....................................... 2-8
• 14 CFR Part 47—Aircraft Registration .......... 2-10
• 14 CFR Part 65—Certification: Airmen
• Other Than Flight Crewmembers .................. 2-10
• 14 CFR Part 91—General Operating and
• Flight Rules ................................................... 2-10
• 14 CFR Part 119—Certification: Air
• Carriers and Commercial Operators ............. 2-10
• 14 CFR Part 121—Operating
• Requirements: Domestic, Flag, and
• Supplemental Operations .............................2-11
• 14 CFR Part 125—Certification and
• Operations: Airplanes Having a Seating

Capacity of 20 or More Passengers or a Maximum Payload Capacity of 6,000

Pounds or More; and Rules Governing Persons on Board Such Aircraft ................... 2-12

• 14 CFR Part 135—Operating
• Requirements: Commuter and On-Demand

Operations and Rules Governing Persons on Board Such Aircraft ................................. 2-12

• 14 CFR Part 145—Repair Stations ............... 2-13
• 14 CFR Part 147—Aviation Maintenance
• Technician Schools ....................................... 2-13
• 14 CFR Part 183—Representatives of the
• Administrator ................................................. 2-13

Explanation of Primary Regulations (Parts 43 and 91) ................................................................ 2-14

• 14 CFR Part 43—Maintenance, Preventative
• Maintenance Rebuilding, and Alteration .......... 2-14
• Section 43.1—Applicability ........................... 2-14
• Section 43.2—Records of Overhaul and
• Rebuilding ..................................................... 2-14

Section 43.3—Persons authorized to perform maintenance, preventive maintenance, rebuilding, and alterations ...... 2-14

Section 43.5—Approval for return to service after maintenance, preventive maintenance, rebuilding, and alterations ...... 2-15

Section 43.7—Persons authorized to approve aircraft, airframes, aircraft engines, propellers, appliances, or component parts for return to service after maintenance, preventive maintenance, rebuilding, or alteration ................................. 2-16

Section 43.9—Content, form and disposition of maintenance, preventive maintenance, rebuilding, and alteration records (except inspection performed in accordance with parts 91 and 125, and sections 135.411(a)(1) and 135.419 of this chapter) ......................................................... 2-16

Section 43.10—Disposition of Life-Limited

Aircraft Parts ................................................. 2-16

Section 43.11—Content, form, and disposition of records for inspections conducted under parts 91 and 125, and sections 135.411(a)(1) and 135.419 of this chapter .......................................................... 2-17

Section 43.12—Maintenance Records:

• Falsification, Reproduction, or Alteration ...... 2-17
• Section 43.13—Performance Rules
• (General) ....................................................... 2-17
• Section 43.15—Additional Performance
• Rules for Inspections .................................... 2-18
• Section 43.16—Airworthiness Limitations .... 2-18

Section 43.17—Maintenance, preventive maintenance, or alterations performed on U.S. aeronautical products by certain Canadian persons ......................................... 2-18

Appendix A—Major Alterations, Major

Repairs, and Preventive Maintenance .......... 2-18

Appendix B—Recording of Major Repairs and Major Alterations .................................... 2-20

• Appendix C—(Reserved) .............................. 2-20
• Appendix D—Scope and Detail of Items
• To Be Included in Annual and 100-Hour
• Inspections .................................................... 2-20
• Appendix E—Altimeter System Test and
• Inspection ...................................................... 2-20
• Appendix F—ATC Transponder Tests and
• Inspections .................................................... 2-20
• 14 CFR Part 91—General Operating and

Flight Rules ...................................................... 2-21

• Subpart A—General ..................................... 2-21
• Subpart E—Maintenance, Preventive
• Maintenance, and Alterations........................ 2-21
• Civil Air Regulations (CAR).................................. 2-23

CAR 3—Airplane Airworthiness—Normal, Utility, Aerobatic, and Restricted Purpose Categories ........................................................ 2-23

• CAR 4a—Airplane Airworthiness ..................... 2-23
• Suspected Unapproved Parts (SUP) ................... 2-24
• Other FAA Documents ......................................... 2-24
• Advisory Circulars (AC) .................................... 2-24
• The AC Numbering System .......................... 2-26
• Types of Airworthiness Directives (AD) ......... 2-26
• AD Content ................................................... 2-26
• AD Number ................................................... 2-26

• Applicability and Compliance ........................ 2-27
• Alternative Method of Compliance ................ 2-27
• Special Airworthiness Information Bulletin

(SAIB) ............................................................... 2-27

• Aircraft Specifications ....................................... 2-27
• Supplemental Type Certificates (STC) ............. 2-27
• Type Certificate Data Sheets (TCDS) .............. 2-30
• FAA Handbooks & Manuals ................................. 2-30
• Non-FAA Documents ........................................... 2-30
• Air Transport Association ATA iSpec 2200 ...... 2-30
• Manufacturers’ Published Data ........................ 2-30
• Airworthiness Limitations ................................. 2-33
• Service Bulletins (SB) ...................................... 2-33
• Structural Repair Manual (SRM) ...................... 2-33

Forms .................................................................. 2-33

• Airworthiness Certificates ................................. 2-33
• Aircraft Registration .......................................... 2-37
• Radio Station License ..................................... 2-38

FAA Form 337—Major Repair and Alteration .. 2-38 Records ............................................................... 2-39

• Making Maintenance Record Entries ............... 2-39
• Temporary Records—14 CFR Part 91
• Section 91.417(a)(1) and (b)(1) ........................ 2-39

Permanent Records—14 CFR Part 91, Section 91.417(a)(2) and (b)(2) ........................ 2-39

• Electronic Records .......................................... 2-39
• Light Sport Aircraft (LSA) .................................... 2-40
• Maintenance ..................................................... 2-40
• Aircraft Maintenance Manual (AMM) ................ 2-44
• Line Maintenance, Repairs, & Alterations ........ 2-45
• Major Repairs & Alterations .............................. 2-45
• Chapter 3
• Mathematics in Aviation Maintenance...............3-1

Introduction ............................................................ 3-1

Whole Numbers ..................................................... 3-1

• Addition of Whole Numbers ............................... 3-1
• Subtraction of Whole Numbers .......................... 3-1
• Division of Whole Numbers ................................ 3-1

Fractions ................................................................ 3-2

• Finding the Least Common Denominator ......... 3-2
• Addition of Fractions .......................................... 3-2
• Subtraction of Fractions ..................................... 3-2
• Multiplication of Fractions ................................... 3-3
• Division of Fractions ........................................... 3-3
• Reducing Fractions ............................................ 3-3

Mixed Numbers ..................................................... 3-3

• Addition of Mixed Numbers ................................ 3-4
• Subtraction of Mixed Numbers ........................... 3-4
• The Decimal Number System................................ 3-4
• Origin and Definition .......................................... 3-4
• Addition of Decimal Numbers ............................. 3-4
• Subtraction of Decimal Numbers ....................... 3-4
• Multiplication of Decimal Numbers ..................... 3-5
• Division of Decimal Numbers ............................. 3-6
• Rounding Off Decimal Numbers......................... 3-6
• Converting Decimal Numbers to Fractions ........ 3-6
• Converting Fractions to Decimals ...................... 3-7
• Decimal Equivalent Chart ................................... 3-7

Ratio ...................................................................... 3-7

Aviation Applications .......................................... 3-7

Proportion .............................................................. 3-8

Extremes and Means ......................................... 3-8

Solving Proportions ............................................ 3-8

Percentage .......................................................... 3-10

Expressing a Decimal Number as a

Percentage ....................................................... 3-10

Expressing a Percentage as a Decimal

Number ............................................................ 3-10

• Expressing a Fraction as a Percentage ........... 3-10
• Finding a Percentage of a Given Number ....... 3-10
• Finding What Percentage One Number is of

Another ............................................................. 3-10

Finding a Number When a Percentage of it is

Known ...............................................................3-11

Positive & Negative Numbers (Signed Numbers) 3-11 Addition of Positive & Negative Numbers .........3-11

Subtraction of Positive & Negative Numbers ....3-11

Multiplication of Positive & Negative Numbers ..3-11 Powers..................................................................3-11

• Special Powers ............................................... 3-12
• Squared ....................................................... 3-12
• Cubed ........................................................... 3-12
• Power of Zero ............................................... 3-12
• Law of Exponents ............................................. 3-12
• Powers of Ten................................................... 3-12

Roots ................................................................ 3-12

• Square Roots ................................................... 3-12
• Cube Roots ...................................................... 3-13
• Fractional Powers ............................................ 3-13
• Functions of Numbers Chart................................ 3-13

Scientific Notation ................................................ 3-13

Converting Numbers from Standard Notation to Scientific Notation ........................................ 3-13

Converting Numbers from Scientific Notation to Standard Notation ........................................ 3-16

Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication, and

Division of Scientific Numbers .......................... 3-16

Algebra ................................................................ 3-16

Equations ......................................................... 3-16

Algebraic Rules ................................................ 3-16

Solving for a Variable ....................................... 3-16

• Use of Parentheses .......................................... 3-17
• Order of Operation ........................................... 3-17
• Order of Operation for Algebraic Equations ..... 3-18
• Computing Area of Two-Dimensional Solids ....... 3-18

Rectangle ......................................................... 3-18

Square .............................................................. 3-18

Triangle ............................................................ 3-18

Parallelogram ................................................... 3-18

Trapezoid ......................................................... 3-18

Circle ................................................................ 3-19

Ellipse ............................................................... 3-19

Units of Area ..................................................... 3-20

Computing Volume of Three-Dimensional Solids 3-20 Rectangular Solid ............................................. 3-20

Cube ................................................................. 3-21

Cylinder ............................................................ 3-21

Sphere .............................................................. 3-22

Cone ................................................................. 3-23

Units of Volume ................................................ 3-23

Computing Surface Area of Three-Dimensional

Solids ................................................................... 3-23

Rectangular Solid ............................................. 3-24

Cube ................................................................. 3-24

Cylinder ............................................................ 3-24

Sphere .............................................................. 3-24

Cone ................................................................ 3-24

• Trigonometric Functions ...................................... 3-24
• Right Triangle, Sides, and Angles .................... 3-24
• Sine, Cosine, and Tangent ............................... 3-25
• Calculator Method: ........................................ 3-25
• Trigonometry Table Method: ......................... 3-25
• Pythagorean Theorem...................................... 3-25
• Measurement Systems ........................................ 3-26
• Conventional (U.S. or English) System ............ 3-26
• Metric System .................................................. 3-26
• Measurement Systems & Conversions ............ 3-26
• The Binary Number System ................................ 3-27
• Place Values..................................................... 3-27
• Converting Binary Numbers to Decimal

Numbers ........................................................... 3-27

Converting Decimal Numbers to Binary

Numbers .......................................................... 3-27

• Chapter 4
• Aircraft Drawings.................................................4-1

Introduction ............................................................ 4-1

• Computer Graphics ............................................... 4-1
• Purpose & Function of Aircraft Drawings ............... 4-1
• Care & Use of Drawings ........................................ 4-2

Types of Drawings ................................................. 4-2

Detail Drawing .................................................... 4-2

• Assembly Drawing ............................................. 4-2
• Installation Drawing ............................................ 4-2
• Sectional View Drawings .................................... 4-2
• Full Section ..................................................... 4-2
• Half Section ..................................................... 4-2
• Revolved Section ............................................ 4-2
• Removed Section ............................................ 4-3

Title Blocks ............................................................ 4-3

• Drawing or Print Numbers .................................. 4-3
• Reference and Dash Numbers ........................... 4-3
• Universal Numbering System ................................ 4-3
• Drawing Standards ................................................ 4-7

Bill of Material ........................................................ 4-7

Other Drawing Data ............................................... 4-8

Revision Block .................................................... 4-8

Notes .................................................................. 4-8

Zone Numbers ................................................... 4-8

Station Numbers & Location Identification on

Aircraft ................................................................ 4-8

Allowances & Tolerances ................................... 4-9

Finish Marks ....................................................... 4-9

Scale .................................................................. 4-9

Application .......................................................... 4-9

Methods of Illustration ........................................... 4-9

• Applied Geometry .............................................. 4-9
• Orthographic Projection Drawings .................. 4-9
• Pictorial Drawings ..........................................4-11
• Diagrams ........................................................4-11
• Flowcharts ..................................................... 4-13
• Lines and Their Meanings ................................... 4-16

Centerlines ....................................................... 4-16

• Dimension Lines ............................................... 4-17
• Extension Lines ................................................ 4-17
• Sectioning Lines ............................................... 4-17
• Phantom Lines ................................................. 4-17

Break Lines ...................................................... 4-18

• Leader Lines .................................................... 4-18
• Hidden Lines .................................................... 4-18
• Outline or Visible Lines..................................... 4-18

Stitch Lines ....................................................... 4-18

• Cutting Plane and Viewing Plane Lines ........... 4-19
• Drawing Symbols................................................. 4-19
• Material Symbols .............................................. 4-19
• Shape Symbols ................................................ 4-19
• Electrical Symbols ............................................ 4-19
• Reading and Interpreting Drawings ..................... 4-19
• Drawing Sketches................................................ 4-22
• Sketching Techniques ...................................... 4-22
• Basic Shapes ................................................... 4-22
• Repair Sketches ............................................... 4-22
• Care of Drafting Instruments ............................... 4-22

Graphs & Charts .................................................. 4-23

• Reading & Interpreting Graphs & Charts ......... 4-23
• Nomograms ...................................................... 4-23
• Microfilm & Microfiche ......................................... 4-23

Digital Images ...................................................... 4-23

• Chapter 5
• Physics for Aviation ............................................5-1

Matter ................................................................... 5-1

Characteristics of Matter ................................... 5-1

Mass & Weight ................................................ 5-1

Attraction ......................................................... 5-1

Porosity ........................................................... 5-1

Impenetrability ................................................. 5-1

Density ........................................................... 5-2

Specific Gravity .............................................. 5-2

Energy ................................................................... 5-2

Potential Energy ................................................. 5-2

Kinetic Energy .................................................... 5-3

Force, Work, Power, & Torque ............................... 5-4

Force .................................................................. 5-4

Work ................................................................... 5-4

Friction & Work ................................................... 5-4

• Static Friction .................................................. 5-5
• Sliding Friction ................................................ 5-5
• Rolling Friction ................................................ 5-6

Power ................................................................. 5-6

Torque ................................................................ 5-6

Simple Machines ................................................... 5-7

Mechanical Advantage of Machines ................... 5-7

The Lever ........................................................... 5-8

• First Class Lever ............................................. 5-8
• Second Class Lever ........................................ 5-9
• Third Class Lever ............................................ 5-9

The Pulley .......................................................... 5-9

• Single Fixed Pulley ......................................... 5-9
• Single Movable Pulley ..................................... 5-9
• Block and Tackle ........................................... 5-10

The Gear .......................................................... 5-10

Inclined Plane ....................................................5-11

Stress .................................................................. 5-12

Tension ............................................................. 5-12

Compression .................................................... 5-13

Torsion .............................................................. 5-13

Bending ............................................................ 5-13

Shear ................................................................ 5-13

Strain ................................................................ 5-14

Motion .................................................................. 5-14

Uniform Motion ................................................. 5-14

Speed and Velocity .......................................... 5-14

Acceleration ..................................................... 5-15

• Newton’s Law of Motion ................................... 5-16
• First Law ....................................................... 5-16
• Second Law .................................................. 5-16
• Third Law ...................................................... 5-17
• Circular Motion ................................................. 5-17

Heat ..................................................................... 5-18

• Heat Energy Units ............................................ 5-18
• Heat Energy and Thermal Efficiency ................ 5-19
• Heat Transfer ................................................... 5-19
• Conduction .................................................... 5-19
• Convection .................................................... 5-20
• Radiation ....................................................... 5-20

Specific Heat .................................................... 5-21

Temperature ..................................................... 5-21

Thermal Expansion/Contraction ....................... 5-22

Pressure .............................................................. 5-22

• Gauge Pressure ............................................... 5-23
• Absolute Pressure ............................................ 5-23
• Differential Pressure ......................................... 5-23

Gas Laws............................................................. 5-23

Boyle’s Law ...................................................... 5-24

Charles’ Law..................................................... 5-25

General Gas Law ............................................. 5-25

Dalton’s Law ..................................................... 5-25

Fluid Mechanics................................................... 5-26

Buoyancy ......................................................... 5-26

• Fluid Pressure .................................................. 5-27
• Pascal’s Law .................................................... 5-27
• Bernoulli’s Principle .......................................... 5-29

Sound .................................................................. 5-30

• Wave Motion .................................................... 5-30
• Speed of Sound ............................................... 5-31
• Mach Number ................................................... 5-31
• Frequency of Sound ......................................... 5-31

Loudness .......................................................... 5-32

• Measurement of Sound Intensity ..................... 5-32
• Doppler Effect................................................... 5-32
• Resonance ....................................................... 5-32
• The Atmosphere .................................................. 5-32
• Composition of the Atmosphere ....................... 5-33
• Atmospheric Pressure ...................................... 5-34
• Atmospheric Density ........................................ 5-34
• Water Content of the Atmosphere .................... 5-34
• Absolute Humidity ......................................... 5-35
• Relative Humidity .......................................... 5-35
• Dew Point ...................................................... 5-36
• Vapor Pressure ............................................. 5-36
• Standard Atmosphere ...................................... 5-36
• Aircraft Theory of Flight ....................................... 5-36

• Four Forces of Flight ........................................ 5-36
• Bernoulli’s Principle and Subsonic Flow........... 5-37
• Lift and Newton’s Third Law ............................. 5-37

Airfoils .............................................................. 5-38

• Camber ......................................................... 5-38
• Chord Line ..................................................... 5-38
• Relative Wind ................................................ 5-38
• Angle of Attack ............................................... 5-38
• Boundary Layer Airflow ................................... 5-39
• Boundary Layer Control ................................ 5-39
• Wingtip Vortices ............................................... 5-40
• Axes of an Aircraft ............................................ 5-40

Aircraft Stability ............................................... 5-40

• Static Stability ............................................... 5-40
• Dynamic Stability .......................................... 5-40
• Longitudinal Stability ..................................... 5-41
• Lateral Stability ............................................. 5-42
• Directional Stability ....................................... 5-42
• Dutch Roll ..................................................... 5-42
• Flight Control Surfaces ..................................... 5-42
• Flight Controls & the Lateral Axis .................. 5-42
• Flight Controls and the Longitudinal Axis ...... 5-43
• Flight Controls and the Vertical Axis ............. 5-43

Tabs .............................................................. 5-44

• Supplemental Lift-Modifying Devices ............ 5-45
• High-Speed Aerodynamics ............................... 5-46
• Compressibility Effects .................................. 5-46
• The Speed of Sound ..................................... 5-46

Subsonic, Transonic, and Supersonic Flight . 5-47 Shock Waves ................................................ 5-47

• High-Speed Airfoils ....................................... 5-48
• Aerodynamic Heating .................................... 5-49
• Helicopter Aerodynamics ................................. 5-49
• Helicopter Structures and Airfoils .................. 5-49
• Helicopter Axes of Flight ............................... 5-52
• Helicopters in Flight ...................................... 5-54
• Weight-Shift Control, Flexible Wing Aircraft
• Aerodynamics .................................................. 5-56
• Powered Parachute Aerodynamics .................. 5-58
• Chapter 6
• Aircraft Weight & Balance ..................................6-1

Introduction ............................................................ 6-1

Requirements for Aircraft Weighing ....................... 6-1

Weight & Balance Terminology .............................. 6-2

Datum ................................................................. 6-2

Arm ..................................................................... 6-2

Moment .............................................................. 6-2

• Center of Gravity (CG) ....................................... 6-3
• Maximum Weight................................................ 6-3
• Empty Weight ..................................................... 6-4
• Empty Weight Center of Gravity (EWCG) .......... 6-4

Useful Load ........................................................ 6-4

Minimum Fuel ..................................................... 6-4

Tare Weight ........................................................ 6-5

• Procedures for Weighing an Aircraft ...................... 6-5
• General Concepts .............................................. 6-5
• Weight and Balance Data................................... 6-6
• Manufacturer-Furnished Information .................. 6-6
• Weight and Balance Equipment ........................... 6-7

Scales ................................................................ 6-7

• Spirit Level ....................................................6-11
• Hydrometer ................................................... 6-12
• Preparing an Aircraft for Weighing ................... 6-12
• Fuel System .................................................. 6-13
• Oil System ..................................................... 6-13
• Miscellaneous Fluids ..................................... 6-14
• Flight Controls ............................................... 6-14
• Other Considerations .................................... 6-14
• Weighing Points ............................................ 6-14
• Jacking the Aircraft ........................................... 6-14
• Leveling the Aircraft .......................................... 6-14
• Safety Considerations ...................................... 6-15
• CG Range ........................................................ 6-15
• Empty Weight Center of Gravity (EWCG)
• Range ........................................................... 6-15
• Operating CG Range .................................... 6-16

Standard Weights Used for Aircraft Weight and Balance ..................................................... 6-16

• Example Weighing of an Airplane .................... 6-16
• EWCG Formulas .............................................. 6-16
• Datum Forward of the Airplane–Nosewheel
• Landing Gear ................................................... 6-16
• Datum Aft of the Main Wheels–Nosewheel
• Landing Gear ................................................... 6-17
• Location of Datum ............................................ 6-17
• Datum Forward of the Main Wheels–Tail
• Wheel Landing Gear ........................................ 6-17
• Loading an Aircraft for Flight................................ 6-19
• Example Loading of an Airplane ................... 6-19
• Adverse-Loaded CG Checks ........................... 6-20
• Example Forward & Aft Adverse-Loaded CG

Checks ............................................................. 6-20

• Equipment Change & Aircraft Alteration .............. 6-21
• Example Calculation After an Equipment
• Change ......................................................... 6-21

Use of Ballast ................................................... 6-22

• Temporary Ballast ......................................... 6-22
• Permanent Ballast ......................................... 6-23
• Loading Graphs & CG Envelopes ....................... 6-24

• Helicopter Weight & Balance ............................... 6-25
• General Concepts ............................................ 6-25
• Helicopter Weighing ......................................... 6-25
• Weight and Balance—Weight-Shift Control
• Aircraft and Powered Parachutes ........................ 6-26
• Weight-Shift Control Aircraft ............................. 6-27
• Powered Parachutes ........................................ 6-28
• Built-In Electronic Weighing ............................. 6-28
• Mean Aerodynamic Chord ................................ 6-28
• Weight & Balance Records.................................. 6-31
• Chapter 7
• Aircraft Materials, Hardware, & Processes ......7-1
• Properties of Metals ........................................... 7-1
• Hardness ......................................................... 7-1

Strength .......................................................... 7-1

Density ............................................................ 7-1

Malleability ...................................................... 7-1

Ductility ........................................................... 7-1

Elasticity .......................................................... 7-1

Toughness ....................................................... 7-1

Brittleness ....................................................... 7-1

Fusibility .......................................................... 7-2

• Conductivity .................................................... 7-2
• Thermal Expansion ......................................... 7-2
• Ferrous Aircraft Metals ....................................... 7-2

Iron .................................................................. 7-2

• Steel and Steel Alloys ..................................... 7-2
• Electrochemical Test .......................................... 7-4
• Nonferrous Aircraft Metals .................................. 7-5
• Aluminum & Aluminum Alloys ......................... 7-5
• Wrought Aluminum .......................................... 7-7
• Effect of Alloying Element ............................... 7-7
• Hardness Identification ................................... 7-7
• Magnesium & Magnesium Alloys .................... 7-8
• Titanium and Titanium Alloys .......................... 7-9
• Copper and Copper Alloys ............................ 7-10
• Nickel & Nickel Alloys .....................................7-11
• Substitution of Aircraft Metals ............................7-11
• Metalworking Processes .................................. 7-12
• Hot-Working .................................................. 7-12
• Internal Structure of Metals ........................... 7-14
• Heat-Treating Equipment .............................. 7-14

Heating .......................................................... 7-15

Soaking ......................................................... 7-15

Cooling .......................................................... 7-16

• Quenching Media .......................................... 7-16
• Quenching Equipment .................................. 7-16
• Heat-Treatment of Ferrous Metals ................... 7-16

Behavior of Steel During Heating & Cooling . 7-16 Hardening ..................................................... 7-17

• Hardening Precautions ................................. 7-19
• Tempering ..................................................... 7-19
• Annealing ...................................................... 7-19
• Normalizing ................................................... 7-19
• Case Hardening ............................................ 7-20
• Heat-Treatment of Nonferrous Metals .............. 7-20
• Aluminum Alloys ............................................ 7-20
• Alclad Aluminum ........................................... 7-21
• Solution Heat-Treatment ............................... 7-21
• Quenching ..................................................... 7-22
• Lag Between Soaking & Quenching ............. 7-22
• Reheat-Treatment ......................................... 7-22
• Straightening After Solution Heat-Treatment.... 7-22
• Precipitation Heat-Treating............................... 7-22
• Precipitation Practices .................................. 7-23
• Annealing of Aluminum Alloys .......................... 7-23
• Heat-Treatment of Aluminum Alloy Rivets ........ 7-24
• Heat-Treatment of Magnesium Alloys .............. 7-24
• Solution Heat-Treatment ............................... 7-24
• Precipitation Heat-Treatment ........................ 7-24
• Heat-Treatment of Titanium.............................. 7-25
• Stress Relieving ............................................ 7-25
• Full Annealing ............................................... 7-25
• Thermal Hardening ....................................... 7-25
• Case Hardening ............................................ 7-25
• Hardness Testing.............................................. 7-25
• Brinell Tester ................................................. 7-26
• Rockwell Tester ............................................. 7-26
• Barcol Tester ................................................. 7-27

Forging ............................................................. 7-27

Casting ............................................................. 7-28

Extruding .......................................................... 7-28

Cold-Working/Hardening .................................. 7-29

Nonmetallic Aircraft Materials .............................. 7-29

Wood ................................................................ 7-29

Plastics ............................................................. 7-29

Transparent Plastics......................................... 7-29

Composite Materials ........................................ 7-30

Advantages/Disadvantages of Composites .. 7-30 Composite Safety .......................................... 7-31

• Fiber Reinforced Materials ............................ 7-31
• Laminated Structures .................................... 7-31
• Reinforced Plastic ......................................... 7-31

Rubber ............................................................. 7-32

• Natural Rubber .............................................. 7-32
• Synthetic Rubber .......................................... 7-32
• Shock Absorber Cord ....................................... 7-33

Seals.................................................................... 7-33

Packings ........................................................... 7-34

• O-Ring Packings ........................................... 7-34
• V-Ring Packings ............................................ 7-35
• U-Ring Packings ........................................... 7-35

Gaskets ............................................................ 7-35

Wipers .............................................................. 7-35

• Sealing Compounds ......................................... 7-35
• One Part Sealants ......................................... 7-36
• Two Part Sealants ......................................... 7-36

Aircraft Hardware................................................. 7-36

Identification ..................................................... 7-37

Threaded Fasteners ......................................... 7-37

Classification of Threads ............................... 7-37

Aircraft Bolts ..................................................... 7-37

• General Purpose Bolts .................................. 7-37
• Close Tolerance Bolts ................................... 7-38
• Internal Wrenching Bolts ............................... 7-38
• Identification and Coding .............................. 7-38
• Special-Purpose Bolts ................................... 7-39

Aircraft Nuts ..................................................... 7-41

• Non-Self-Locking Nuts .................................. 7-41
• Self-Locking Nuts .......................................... 7-42
• Sheet Spring Nuts ......................................... 7-45
• Internal & External Wrenching Nuts .............. 7-45
• Identification & Coding .................................. 7-45
• Aircraft Washers ............................................... 7-46
• Plain Washers ............................................... 7-46
• Lock Washers ............................................... 7-46
• Special Washers ........................................... 7-47
• Installation of Nuts, Washers, & Bolts .............. 7-47
• Bolt & Hole Sizes .......................................... 7-47
• Installation Practices ..................................... 7-48
• Safetying of Bolts & Nuts ................................. 7-48
• Repair of Damaged Internal Threads ............ 7-48
• Fastener Torque ............................................... 7-49

Torque ........................................................... 7-49

• Torque Wrenches ......................................... 7-49
• Torque Tables ................................................ 7-50
• Cotter Pin Hole Line Up ................................ 7-50

Aircraft Rivets ................................................... 7-51

• Standards and Specifications ....................... 7-51
• Solid Shank Rivets ........................................ 7-52
• Identification .................................................. 7-54
• Blind Rivets ................................................... 7-56
• Mechanically-Expanded Rivets ........................ 7-57
• Self-Plugging Rivets (Friction Lock) .............. 7-57
• Pull-Thru Rivets ............................................ 7-57
• Self-Plugging Rivets (Mechanical Lock) ....... 7-58

Material ......................................................... 7-58

• Head Styles ................................................... 7-59
• Diameters ...................................................... 7-59
• Grip Length ................................................... 7-59
• Rivet Identification ......................................... 7-59
• Special Shear and Bearing Load Fasteners .... 7-60
• Pin Rivets ...................................................... 7-60
• Taper-Lok ...................................................... 7-61
• HI-LOK™ Fastening System ......................... 7-61
• HI-TIGUE™ Fastening System ..................... 7-63
• HI-LITE™ Fastening System ........................ 7-64
• Captive Fasteners ......................................... 7-64
• Turn Lock Fasteners ..................................... 7-64
• Dzus Fasteners ............................................. 7-64
• Camloc Fasteners ......................................... 7-65
• Airloc Fasteners ............................................ 7-66

Screws ............................................................. 7-66

• Structural Screws .......................................... 7-66
• Machine Screws ............................................ 7-67
• Self-Tapping Screws ..................................... 7-67
• Identification & Coding for Screws ................ 7-67
• Riveted & Rivetless Nut Plates ........................ 7-68
• Nut Plates ..................................................... 7-68

Rivnuts .......................................................... 7-68

• Dill Lok-Skrus and Dill Lok-Rivets ................. 7-69
• Deutsch Rivets .............................................. 7-70
• Sealing Nut Plates ........................................ 7-70
• Hole Repair & Hole Repair Hardware .............. 7-70
• Repair of Damaged Holes with Acres
• Fastener Sleeves .......................................... 7-71
• Control Cables & Terminals........................... 7-72
• Push-Pull Tube Linkage ................................ 7-72
• Safetying Methods ........................................... 7-75

Pins ............................................................... 7-75

Safety Wiring .................................................... 7-77

• Nuts, Bolts, & Screws ................................... 7-77
• Oil Caps, Drain Cocks, & Valves ................... 7-77
• Electrical Connectors .................................... 7-79
• Turnbuckles................................................... 7-79
• General Safety Wiring Rules ............................ 7-80
• Cotter Pin Safetying ...................................... 7-80
• Snap Rings ................................................... 7-80
• Chapter 8
• Cleaning & Corrosion Control ............................8-1

Corrosion ............................................................... 8-1

Factors Affecting Corrosion ................................ 8-1

Pure Metals ..................................................... 8-1

Climate ............................................................ 8-2

• Geographical Location .................................... 8-2
• Foreign Material .............................................. 8-2
• Micro-organisms ............................................. 8-2
• Manufacturing Processes ............................... 8-2
• Types of Corrosion ............................................. 8-2
• Direct Chemical Attack .................................... 8-2
• Electrochemical Attack .................................... 8-3
• Forms of Corrosion ............................................ 8-5
• Surface Corrosion ........................................... 8-5
• Filiform Corrosion ........................................... 8-5
• Pitting Corrosion ............................................. 8-6
• Dissimilar Metal Corrosion .............................. 8-6
• Concentration Cell Corrosion .......................... 8-6
• Intergranular Corrosion ................................... 8-7
• Exfoliation Corrosion ....................................... 8-7
• Stress-Corrosion/Cracking .............................. 8-7
• Fretting Corrosion ........................................... 8-9
• Fatigue Corrosion ........................................... 8-9
• Galvanic Corrosion ....................................... 8-10
• Common Corrosive Agents .............................. 8-10
• Preventive Maintenance ...................................... 8-10

Inspection .............................................................8-11

• Corrosion Prone Areas .........................................8-11
• Exhaust Trail Areas ...........................................8-11
• Battery Compartments and Battery Vent

Openings .......................................................... 8-12

Bilge Areas ....................................................... 8-12

• Lavatories, Buffets, & Galleys .......................... 8-12
• Wheel Well and Landing Gear ......................... 8-12
• Water Entrapment Areas .................................. 8-12
• Engine Frontal Areas & Cooling Air Vents ........ 8-13
• Wing Flap & Spoiler Recesses ......................... 8-13
• External Skin Areas .......................................... 8-13
• Electronic & Electrical Compartments .............. 8-13
• Miscellaneous Trouble Areas ........................... 8-13
• Corrosion Removal .............................................. 8-14
• Surface Cleaning and Paint Removal .............. 8-14
• Fairing or Blending Reworked Areas ................ 8-15
• Corrosion of Ferrous Metals ................................ 8-15
• Mechanical Removal of Iron Rust .................... 8-15
• Chemical Removal of Rust ............................... 8-16
• Chemical Surface Treatment of Steel .............. 8-16
• Removal of Corrosion from Highly Stressed

Steel Parts ........................................................ 8-17

• Corrosion of Aluminum & Aluminum Alloys.......... 8-17
• Treatment of Unpainted Aluminum Surfaces.... 8-18
• Treatment of Anodized Surfaces ...................... 8-19
• Treatment of Intergranular Corrosion in
• Heat-Treated Aluminum Alloy Surfaces............ 8-19
• Corrosion of Magnesium Alloys ........................... 8-19
• Treatment of Wrought Magnesium Sheet &

Forgings ........................................................... 8-19

• Treatment of Installed Magnesium Castings .... 8-19
• Treatment of Titanium & Titanium Alloys ............. 8-20
• Protection of Dissimilar Metal Contacts ............... 8-20
• Contacts Not Involving Magnesium .................. 8-20
• Contacts Involving Magnesium ........................ 8-20

Corrosion Limits................................................... 8-20

Processes & Materials Used in Corrosion

Control ................................................................. 8-21

• Metal Finishing ................................................. 8-21
• Surface Preparation ......................................... 8-21
• Chemical Treatments........................................... 8-22

Anodizing ......................................................... 8-22

Alodizing ........................................................... 8-22

• Chemical Surface Treatment and Inhibitors ..... 8-22
• Chromic Acid Inhibitor ...................................... 8-22
• Sodium Dichromate Solution ............................ 8-23
• Chemical Surface Treatments .......................... 8-23
• Protective Paint Finishes ..................................... 8-23

Aircraft Cleaning .................................................. 8-23

• Exterior Cleaning .............................................. 8-23
• Interior Cleaning ............................................... 8-24
• Types of Cleaning Operations ....................... 8-24
• Nonflammable Aircraft Cabin Cleaning
• Agents & Solvents ......................................... 8-25
• Flammable & Combustible Agents ................ 8-25
• Container Controls ........................................ 8-25
• Fire Prevention Precautions .......................... 8-25
• Fire Protection Recommendations ................ 8-26
• Powerplant Cleaning ........................................... 8-26

Solvent Cleaners ................................................. 8-27

• Dry Cleaning Solvent ....................................... 8-27
• Aliphatic and Aromatic Naphtha ....................... 8-27
• Safety Solvent .................................................. 8-27
• Methyl Ethyl Ketone (MEK) .............................. 8-27

Kerosene .......................................................... 8-27

• Cleaning Compound for Oxygen Systems ....... 8-27
• Emulsion Cleaners .............................................. 8-28
• Water Emulsion Cleaner .................................. 8-28
• Solvent Emulsion Cleaners .............................. 8-28
• Soaps & Detergent Cleaners ............................... 8-28
• Cleaning Compound, Aircraft Surfaces ............ 8-28
• Nonionic Detergent Cleaners ........................... 8-28
• Mechanical Cleaning Materials............................ 8-28
• Mild Abrasive Materials .................................... 8-28
• Abrasive Papers ............................................... 8-28
• Chemical Cleaners .............................................. 8-29
• Phosphoric-citric Acid ....................................... 8-29

• Chapter 9
• Fluid Lines & Fittings ..........................................9-1

Introduction ............................................................ 9-1

Rigid Fluid Lines .................................................... 9-1

Tubing Materials ................................................. 9-1

Copper ............................................................ 9-1

Aluminum Alloy Tubing .................................... 9-1

Steel ................................................................ 9-1

Titanium 3AL–2.5V.......................................... 9-1

Material Identification ......................................... 9-1

Sizes .................................................................. 9-2

• Fabrication of Metal Tube Lines ......................... 9-2
• Tube Cutting.................................................... 9-2
• Tube Bending .................................................. 9-2
• Alternative Bending Methods ............................. 9-3
• Tube Flaring .................................................... 9-3
• Instructions for Rolling-Type Flaring Tools ......... 9-4

Double Flaring .................................................... 9-5

Double Flaring Instructions ............................. 9-5

Fittings ............................................................ 9-5

Flareless Fittings ............................................. 9-5

Beading ........................................................... 9-7

• Fluid Line Identification ...................................... 9-7
• Fluid Line End Fittings ........................................ 9-7
• Universal Bulkhead Fittings ............................ 9-8
• AN Flared Fittings ........................................... 9-8
• MS Flareless Fittings .......................................... 9-9
• Swaged Fittings .............................................. 9-9
• Cryofit Fittings ................................................. 9-9
• Rigid Tubing Installation and Inspection ........... 9-10
• Connection & Torque..................................... 9-10
• Flareless Tube Installation ............................ 9-12
• Rigid Tubing Inspection & Repair.................. 9-14
• Flexible Hose Fluid Lines .................................... 9-16
• Hose Materials & Construction ......................... 9-16
• Buna-N ......................................................... 9-16
• Neoprene ..................................................... 9-16

Butyl ............................................................. 9-16

Hose Identification ........................................ 9-16

Flexible Hose Inspection .................................. 9-18

Fabrication & Replacement of Flexible Hose ... 9-18 Flexible Hose Testing .................................... 9-19

Size Designations ............................................ 9-19

Hose Fittings .................................................... 9-21

Installation of Flexible Hose Assemblies .......... 9-21

Slack ............................................................. 9-21

Flex ............................................................... 9-21

Twisting ......................................................... 9-21

• Bending ......................................................... 9-21
• Clearance ...................................................... 9-21
• Hose Clamps .................................................... 9-22
• Chapter 10
• Inspection Concepts & Techniques.................10-1

Basic Inspection ................................................. 10-1

Techniques/Practices ....................................... 10-1

Preparation ....................................................... 10-1

Aircraft Logs ........................................................ 10-1

Checklists ............................................................ 10-2

Publications ......................................................... 10-3

Manufacturers’ Service Bulletins/Instructions... 10-3 Maintenance Manual ........................................ 10-3

• Overhaul Manual .............................................. 10-4
• Structural Repair Manual ................................. 10-4
• Illustrated Parts Catalog ................................... 10-4
• Wiring Diagram Manual .................................... 10-4
• Code of Federal Regulations (CFRs) .............. 10-4
• Airworthiness Directives (ADs) ......................... 10-4
• Type Certificate Data Sheets (TCDS) .............. 10-4
• Routine/Required Inspections ............................. 10-5
• Preflight/Postflight Inspections ......................... 10-5
• Annual/100-Hour Inspections ........................... 10-5
• Progressive Inspections ................................. 10-12
• Continuous Inspections .................................. 10-12
• Altimeter & Transponder Inspections ............. 10-12
• Air Transport Association iSpec 2200 ................ 10-12
• Special Inspections............................................ 10-12
• Hard or Overweight Landing Inspection ........ 10-14
• Severe Turbulence Inspection/Over “G” ........ 10-14
• Lightning Strike .............................................. 10-16

Bird Strike ...................................................... 10-16

• Fire Damage .................................................. 10-16
• Flood Damage ................................................ 10-16
• Seaplanes ...................................................... 10-16
• Aerial Application Aircraft ............................... 10-16
• Special Flight Permits ........................................ 10-16
• Nondestructive Inspection/Testing ..................... 10-17
• Training, Qualification, & Certification ............ 10-17
• Advantages & Disadvantages of NDI

Methods ......................................................... 10-17

• Visual Inspection ............................................ 10-17
• Surface Cracks ........................................... 10-18
• Borescope ................................................... 10-18
• Interpretation of Results .............................. 10-18
• False Indications ......................................... 10-20
• Eddy Current Inspection ................................. 10-20
• Basic Principles ........................................... 10-20
• Principles of Operations ................................. 10-21
• Eddy Current Instruments .............................. 10-21
• Ultrasonic Inspection ...................................... 10-21

• Pulse Echo .................................................. 10-22
• Through-Transmission ................................ 10-23
• Resonance ................................................. 10-24
• Ultrasonic Instruments ................................... 10-26
• Reference Standards ..................................... 10-26

Couplants ....................................................... 10-26

• Inspection of Bonded Structures ....................... 10-26
• Types of Defects ............................................ 10-28
• Acoustic Emission Inspection ......................... 10-28
• Magnetic Particle Inspection .......................... 10-29
• Development of Indications ......................... 10-29
• Types of Discontinuities Disclosed .............. 10-29
• Preparation of Parts for Testing................... 10-30
• Effect of Flux Direction ................................ 10-30
• Effect of Flux Density .................................. 10-30
• Magnetizing Methods .................................. 10-31
• Identification of Indications .......................... 10-31
• Magnaglo Inspection ...................................... 10-32
• Magnetizing Equipment .............................. 10-32
• Indicating Mediums ..................................... 10-33
• Demagnetizing ............................................ 10-33
• Standard Demagnetizing Practice .............. 10-34
• Radiographic ............................................... 10-34
• Radiographic Inspection ................................. 10-34
• Preparation and Exposure .......................... 10-34
• Radiographic Interpretation ......................... 10-35
• Radiation Hazards ...................................... 10-36
• Inspection of Composites .................................. 10-36

Tap Testing ..................................................... 10-36

• Electrical Conductivity .................................... 10-37
• Thermography ................................................ 10-37
• Inspection of Welds ........................................... 10-38
• Chapter 11
• Hand Tools & Measuring Devices ....................11-1
• General Purpose Tools .........................................11-1
• Hammers & Mallets ...........................................11-1
• Screwdrivers .....................................................11-1
• Pliers & Plier-Type Cutting Tools .......................11-3

Punches ............................................................11-3

Wrenches ..........................................................11-4

• Special Wrenches .............................................11-5
• Torque Wrench ..................................................11-5
• Strap Wrenches ................................................11-6
• Impact Drivers ...................................................11-6

Metal Cutting Tools ...............................................11-8

Hand Snips ........................................................11-8

Hacksaws ..........................................................11-8

Chisels ..............................................................11-9

Files ...................................................................11-9

• Care and Use ...............................................11-10
• Most Commonly Used Files .........................11-10
• Care of Files .................................................11-12

Drills ................................................................11-12

Twist Drills ....................................................11-12

Reamers ..........................................................11-13

Countersink .....................................................11-14

Taps and Dies .....................................................11-14

Layout and Measuring Tools...............................11-14

Rules ...............................................................11-14

Combination Sets ............................................11-17

Scriber .............................................................11-18

Dividers and Pencil Compasses .....................11-19

Calipers ...........................................................11-19

• Micrometer Calipers ........................................11-19
• Micrometer Parts .............................................11-19
• Reading a Micrometer .....................................11-22
• Vernier Scale ...................................................11-23
• Using a Micrometer .........................................11-24
• Slide Calipers ..................................................11-25
• Chapter 12
• Fundamentals of Electricity & Electronics......12-1

Introduction .......................................................... 12-1

General Composition of Matter............................ 12-1

Matter ............................................................... 12-1

Element ............................................................ 12-1

Compound ........................................................ 12-1

Molecule ........................................................... 12-1

Atom ................................................................. 12-1

• Electrons, Protons, & Neutrons ........................ 12-1
• Electron Shells & Energy Levels ...................... 12-2
• Valence Electrons ......................................... 12-2

Ions ............................................................... 12-2

Free Electrons ............................................... 12-2

Electron Movement .......................................... 12-2

Conductors, Insulators, and Semiconductors 12-2 Conductors .................................................... 12-3

• Insulators ...................................................... 12-3
• Semiconductors ............................................ 12-4
• Metric Based Prefixes Used for Electrical

Calculations ......................................................... 12-4

Static Electricity ................................................... 12-4

Attractive and Repulsive Forces ...................... 12-4

Electrostatic Field ............................................. 12-5

Electrostatic Discharge (ESD) Considerations . 12-5 Magnetism ........................................................... 12-6

• Types of Magnets ................................................ 12-9
• Electromagnetism .............................................. 12-12
• Conventional Flow & Electron Flow ................... 12-14
• Conventional Flow .......................................... 12-14

Electron Flow ................................................. 12-14

Electromotive Force (Voltage) ........................... 12-14

Current............................................................... 12-16

• Ohm’s Law (Resistance) ................................... 12-17
• Resistance of a Conductor ................................ 12-18
• Factors Affecting Resistance .......................... 12-18
• Resistance and Relation to Wire Sizing ......... 12-20
• Circular Conductors (Wires/Cables) ........... 12-20
• Rectangular Conductors (Bus Bars) ........... 12-20
• Power and Energy ............................................. 12-20
• Power in an Electrical Circuit ......................... 12-20
• Power Formulas Used in the Study of

Electricity ....................................................... 12-21

• Power in a Series & Parallel Circuit ............... 12-22
• Energy in an Electrical Circuit ........................ 12-22
• Sources of Electricity ...................................... 12-22
• Pressure Source ......................................... 12-22
• Chemical Source ......................................... 12-23
• Thermal Sources ......................................... 12-23
• Light Sources .............................................. 12-23
• Schematic Representation of Electrical
• Components ................................................... 12-23
• Conductors .................................................. 12-23
• Types of Resistors ............................................. 12-24
• Fixed Resistor ................................................ 12-24
• Carbon Composition ...................................... 12-24
• Resistor Ratings ............................................. 12-24
• Color Code .................................................. 12-24
• Color Band Decoding ..................................... 12-25
• Wire-Wound ................................................... 12-26
• Variable Resistors .......................................... 12-26
• Rheostat ...................................................... 12-26
• Potentiometer .............................................. 12-27
• Thermistors .................................................... 12-27
• Photoconductive Cells .................................... 12-27
• Circuit Protection Devices ................................. 12-27

Fuse ............................................................... 12-28

• Current Limiter ............................................... 12-29
• Circuit Breaker ............................................... 12-29
• Arc Fault Circuit Breaker ............................. 12-29
• Thermal Protectors ......................................... 12-29
• Control Devices .............................................. 12-30
• Switches ...................................................... 12-30
• Toggle Switch .............................................. 12-30
• Microswitches ............................................. 12-31
• Rotary Selector Switches ............................ 12-31
• Pushbutton Switches .................................. 12-31
• Lighted Pushbutton Switches...................... 12-32
• Dual In-Line Parallel (DIP) Switches ........... 12-33
• Switch Guards ............................................. 12-33
• Relays ......................................................... 12-33
• Series DC Circuits ............................................. 12-33
• Voltage Drops & Further Application of Ohm’s

Law ................................................................. 12-35

• Voltage Sources in Series .............................. 12-36
• Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law .................................. 12-36
• Voltage Dividers ............................................. 12-37
• Determining the Voltage Divider Formula ...... 12-38
• Parallel DC Circuits ........................................... 12-40
• Voltage Drops ................................................. 12-40
• Total Parallel Resistance ................................ 12-40
• Resistors in Parallel ....................................... 12-40
• Two Resistors in Parallel ................................ 12-40
• Current Source ............................................... 12-41
• Kirchhoff’s Current Law .................................. 12-41
• Current Dividers ............................................. 12-41
• Series-Parallel DC Circuits ................................ 12-42
• Determining the Total Resistance................... 12-42
• Alternating Current (AC) & Voltage.................... 12-43
• AC and DC Compared ................................... 12-44
• Generator Principles .......................................... 12-44
• Generators of Alternating Current .................. 12-44
• Position 1 .................................................... 12-45
• Position 2 .................................................... 12-45
• Position 3 .................................................... 12-45
• Position 4 .................................................... 12-46
• Position 5 .................................................... 12-46
• Cycle and Frequency ..................................... 12-46
• Cycle Defined .............................................. 12-46
• Frequency Defined ...................................... 12-46
• Period Defined ............................................ 12-47
• Wavelength Defined .................................... 12-47
• Phase Relationships ...................................... 12-47
• In Phase Condition ...................................... 12-48
• Out of Phase Condition ............................... 12-48
• Values of Alternating Current.......................... 12-48
• Instantaneous Value.................................... 12-48
• Peak Value .................................................. 12-49
• Effective Value ............................................ 12-49
• Opposition to Current Flow of AC ................... 12-49

Capacitance....................................................... 12-50

Capacitors in Direct Current ........................... 12-50

The Resistor/Capacitor (RC) Time Constant .. 12-50 Units of Capacitance ...................................... 12-50

• Voltage Rating of a Capacitor ........................ 12-51
• Factors Affecting Capacitance........................ 12-51
• Types of Capacitors ....................................... 12-51
• Fixed Capacitors ......................................... 12-51

Ceramic .......................................................... 12-51

Electrolytic ...................................................... 12-52

Tantalum ......................................................... 12-52

• Polyester Film ................................................ 12-52
• Oil Capacitors ................................................. 12-53
• Variable Capacitors ..................................... 12-53

Trimmers ........................................................ 12-53

Varactors ........................................................ 12-53

• Capacitors in Series ....................................... 12-53
• Capacitors in Parallel ..................................... 12-54
• Capacitors in Alternating Current ................... 12-54
• Capacitive Reactance Xc ............................... 12-54
• Sample Problem: ............................................ 12-55

Solution: ......................................................... 12-55

Capacitive Reactances in Series and in

Parallel .......................................................... 12-55

Phase of Current and Voltage in Reactive

Circuits .......................................................... 12-55

Inductance ......................................................... 12-56

• Characteristics of Inductance ......................... 12-56
• The RL Time Constant ................................... 12-56
• Physical Parameters ...................................... 12-56
• Self-Inductance .............................................. 12-57
• Types of Inductors .......................................... 12-57
• Units of Inductance ........................................ 12-58
• Inductors in Series ......................................... 12-58
• Inductors in Parallel ........................................ 12-58
• Inductive Reactance ....................................... 12-58

AC Circuits......................................................... 12-59

• Ohm’s Law for AC Circuits ............................. 12-59
• Series AC Circuits .......................................... 12-59
• Solution: ...................................................... 12-60
• Solution: ...................................................... 12-61
• Solution: ...................................................... 12-62
• Parallel AC Circuits ........................................ 12-62
• Solution: ...................................................... 12-62
• Solution: ...................................................... 12-62
• Resonance ..................................................... 12-63
• Power in AC Circuits ...................................... 12-64
• True Power Defined ....................................... 12-64
• Apparent Power Defined ............................. 12-64
• Solution: ...................................................... 12-65
• Transformers .................................................. 12-65
• Current Transformers ..................................... 12-67
• Transformer Losses ....................................... 12-67
• Power in Transformers ................................... 12-67
• DC Measuring Instruments ................................ 12-67
• D’Arsonval Meter Movement .......................... 12-68
• Current Sensitivity and Resistance ................ 12-68

Damping ......................................................... 12-69

• Electrical Damping ......................................... 12-69
• Mechanical Damping ...................................... 12-69
• A Basic Multirange Ammeter .......................... 12-69
• Precautions ................................................. 12-69

The Voltmeter .................................................... 12-70

• Voltmeter Sensitivity ....................................... 12-70
• Multiple Range Voltmeters ............................. 12-70
• Voltmeter Circuit Connections ........................ 12-71
• Influence of the Voltmeter in the Circuit ......... 12-71
• The Ohmmeter .................................................. 12-71
• Zero Adjustment ............................................. 12-71
• Ohmmeter Scale ............................................ 12-71
• The Multirange Ohmmeter ............................. 12-72
• Megger (Megohmmeter) ................................ 12-72
• AC Measuring Instruments ................................ 12-73
• Electrodynamometer Meter Movement .......... 12-74
• Moving Iron Vane Meter ................................. 12-74
• Inclined Coil Iron Vane Meter ......................... 12-75

Varmeters ....................................................... 12-75

Wattmeter ....................................................... 12-76

• Frequency Measurement/Oscilloscope .......... 12-76
• Horizontal Deflection ...................................... 12-77
• Vertical Deflection .......................................... 12-77
• Tracing a Sine Wave ...................................... 12-77
• Control Features on an Oscilloscope ............. 12-77

Flat Panel Color Displays for Oscilloscopes .. 12-78 Digital Multimeter ........................................... 12-78

• Basic Circuit Analysis & Troubleshooting .......... 12-78
• Voltage Measurement .................................... 12-79
• Current Measurement .................................... 12-80
• Checking Resistance in a Circuit ................... 12-80
• Continuity Checks .......................................... 12-81
• Capacitance Measurement ............................ 12-81
• Inductance Measurement ............................... 12-81
• Troubleshooting Open Faults in a Series

Circuit ............................................................ 12-82

• Tracing Opens with the Voltmeter .................. 12-82
• Tracing Opens with the Ohmmeter ................ 12-82
• Troubleshooting Shorting Faults in a Series

Circuit ............................................................. 12-83

• Tracing Shorts with the Ohmmeter................. 12-83
• Tracing Shorts with the Voltmeter .................. 12-84
• Troubleshooting Open Faults in a Parallel

Circuit ............................................................. 12-84

• Tracing an Open with an Ammeter ................. 12-85
• Tracing an Open with an Ohmmeter .............. 12-85
• Troubleshooting Shorting Faults in Parallel

Circuits ........................................................... 12-85

Troubleshooting Shorting Faults in Series-Parallel Circuits .............................................. 12-86

Logic in Tracing an Open ............................ 12-86

Tracing Opens with the Voltmeter .................. 12-86

Batteries ............................................................ 12-87

Primary Cell .................................................... 12-87

• Secondary Cell ............................................... 12-87
• Battery Ratings ............................................... 12-89
• Life Cycle of a Battery .................................... 12-89
• Lead-Acid Battery Testing Methods................ 12-90
• Lead-Acid Battery Charging Methods ............ 12-91
• Nickel-Cadmium Batteries ................................. 12-91
• Chemistry and Construction ........................... 12-91
• Operation of Nickel-Cadmium Cells ............... 12-92
• General Maintenance and Safety
• Precautions ................................................. 12-92
• Sealed Lead Acid (SLA) Batteries .................. 12-92
• Lithium-Ion Batteries.......................................... 12-93

Inverters............................................................. 12-93

• Rotary Inverters .............................................. 12-94
• Permanent Magnet Rotary Inverter ................ 12-94
• Inductor-Type Rotary Inverter ........................ 12-94
• Static Inverters ............................................... 12-94
• Semiconductors ................................................. 12-95

Doping ............................................................ 12-96

• PN Junctions & the Basic Diode .................... 12-98
• Forward Biased Diode .................................... 12-98
• Reverse Biased Diode ................................... 12-99

Rectifiers.......................................................... 12-100

Half-Wave Rectifier ...................................... 12-101

Full-Wave Rectifier ....................................... 12-102

Dry Disk ........................................................ 12-102

• Types of Diodes ........................................... 12-103
• Power Rectifier Diodes ............................. 12-103
• Zener Diodes ............................................ 12-103
• Special Purpose Diodes ............................ 12-103
• Light-Emitting Diode (LED) ....................... 12-103
• Liquid Crystal Displays (LCD) ................... 12-104
• Photodiode ................................................ 12-104
• Varactors ................................................... 12-104
• Schottky Diodes ........................................ 12-105
• Diode Identification ....................................... 12-105
• Introduction to Transistors ............................... 12-105
• Classification ................................................ 12-105
• Transistor Theory ......................................... 12-106
• PNP Transistor Operation ............................ 12-107
• Identification of Transistors .......................... 12-107
• Field Effect Transistors ................................. 12-107
• Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor FET (MOSFET)
• 12-108
• Common Transistor Configurations .............. 12-108
• Common-Emitter (CE) Configuration ........ 12-108
• Common-Collector (CC) Configuration ..... 12-109
• Common-Base (CB) Configuration ........... 12-109
• Vacuum Tubes ..................................................12-110

Filtering .............................................................12-111

• Filtering Characteristics of Capacitors ..........12-111
• Filtering Characteristics of Inductors .............12-111
• Common Filter Configurations ......................12-111
• Basic LC Filters .............................................12-112
• Low-Pass Filter ..........................................12-112
• High-Pass Filter (HPF) ...............................12-112
• Band-Pass Filter ........................................12-112
• Band-Stop Filter .........................................12-112

Amplifier Circuits...............................................12-113

• Classification .................................................12-113
• Class A .......................................................12-114
• Class AB ....................................................12-114
• Class B .......................................................12-114
• Class C ......................................................12-114
• Methods of Coupling .....................................12-115
• Direct Coupling ..........................................12-115
• RC Coupling ...............................................12-115
• Impedance Coupling ..................................12-116
• Transformer Coupling ................................12-116
• Feedback ......................................................12-116
• Operational Amplifiers (OP AMP) ..................12-116
• Applications ................................................12-117
• Magnetic Amplifiers ..........................................12-118
• Saturable-Core Reactor ................................12-119

Logic Circuits ....................................................12-119

• Logic Polarity ................................................ 12-120
• Positive ..................................................... 12-120
• Negative .................................................... 12-120
• Pulse Structure ............................................. 12-120
• Basic Logic Circuits ...................................... 12-121
• The Inverter Logic ..................................... 12-121
• The AND Gate ........................................... 12-121
• The OR Gate ............................................. 12-122
• The NAND Gate ........................................ 12-122
• The NOR Gate .......................................... 12-122
• Exclusive OR Gate .................................... 12-122
• Exclusive NOR Gate ................................. 12-122
• The Integrated Circuit ................................... 12-122
• Microprocessors ........................................... 12-123
• DC Generators ................................................ 12-123
• Theory of Operation ..................................... 12-123
• Generation of a DC Voltage ......................... 12-125
• Position A .................................................. 12-125
• Position B .................................................. 12-126
• Position C .................................................. 12-126
• Position D .................................................. 12-127
• The Neutral Plane ..................................... 12-127
• Construction Features of DC Generators .... 12-128
• Field Frame ............................................... 12-128

• Armature ...................................................... 12-130
• Gramme-Ring Armature ............................ 12-130
• Drum-Type Armature ................................. 12-130
• Commutators ................................................ 12-130
• Armature Reaction ....................................... 12-131
• Compensating Windings .............................. 12-131

Interpoles ..................................................... 12-132

• Types of DC Generators .............................. 12-132
• Series Wound DC Generators .................. 12-132
• Shunt Wound DC Generators ................... 12-133
• Compound Wound DC Generators ........... 12-134
• Generator Ratings ........................................ 12-134
• Generator Terminals ..................................... 12-135
• DC Generator Maintenance............................. 12-135

Inspection ..................................................... 12-135

• Condition of Generator Brushes ................... 12-136
• DC Motors .................................................... 12-137
• Force Between Parallel Conductors ............. 12-138
• Developing Torque ....................................... 12-138
• Basic DC Motor ............................................ 12-138
• Position A .................................................. 12-139
• Position B .................................................. 12-139
• Position C .................................................. 12-139
• Position D .................................................. 12-139
• DC Motor Construction .................................... 12-140
• Armature Assembly ...................................... 12-140
• Field Assembly ............................................. 12-141
• Brush Assembly ........................................... 12-141
• End Frame ................................................... 12-141
• Types of DC Motors ......................................... 12-141
• Series DC Motor ........................................... 12-141
• Shunt DC Motor ........................................... 12-142
• Compound DC Motor ................................... 12-142
• Counter Electromotive Force (emf) ................. 12-142
• Types of Duty ............................................... 12-143
• Reversing Motor Direction ............................ 12-144
• Motor Speed ................................................. 12-145
• Energy Losses in DC Motors .................... 12-145

Inspection and Maintenance of DC Motors .. 12-146 AC Motors........................................................ 12-147

• Types of AC Motors ...................................... 12-147
• Three-Phase Induction Motor ....................... 12-148
• Rotating Magnetic Field ............................... 12-148
• Construction of Induction Motor ................... 12-148
• Induction Motor Slip ..................................... 12-149
• Single-Phase Induction Motor ...................... 12-149
• Shaded Pole Induction Motor ....................... 12-149
• Split-Phase Motor ......................................... 12-150
• Capacitor Start Motor ................................... 12-150
• Direction of Rotation of Induction Motors ..... 12-150
• Synchronous Motor ...................................... 12-151
• AC Series Motor ........................................... 12-152
• Maintenance of AC Motors ........................... 12-153

Alternators ....................................................... 12-154

• Basic Alternators & Classifications ............... 12-154
• Method of Excitation ..................................... 12-154
• Number of Phases ....................................... 12-154
• Armature or Field Rotation ........................... 12-155
• Single-Phase Alternator ............................ 12-155
• Two-Phase Alternator ................................ 12-156
• Three-Phase Alternator ............................. 12-156
• Wye Connection (Three-Phase) ................... 12-156
• Delta Connection (Three-Phase) ................. 12-156
• Alternator Rectifier Unit ................................ 12-156
• Brushless Alternator ..................................... 12-157
• Alternator Frequency .................................... 12-158
• Starter Generator ......................................... 12-158
• Alternator Rating .......................................... 12-158
• Alternator Maintenance ................................ 12-159
• Regulation of Generator Voltage .................. 12-159
• Voltage Regulation with a Vibrating-Type

Regulator ...................................................... 12-159

• Three Unit Regulators .................................. 12-161
• Differential Relay Switch .............................. 12-162
• Overvoltage & Field Control Relays ............. 12-163
• Generator Control Units (GCU) ....................... 12-164
• Basic Functions of a Generator Control Unit

(GCU) ........................................................... 12-164

• Voltage Regulation ....................................... 12-164
• Overvoltage Protection ................................. 12-164
• Parallel Generator Operations ..................... 12-164
• Over-Excitation Protection ........................... 12-164
• Differential Voltage ....................................... 12-164
• Reverse Current Sensing ............................. 12-164
• Alternator Constant Speed Drive System ........ 12-164
• Hydraulic Transmission ................................... 12-165
• Voltage Regulation of Alternators .................... 12-171
• Alternator Transistorized Regulators ............ 12-172
• Chapter 13
• Mechanic Privileges & Limitations ..................13-1

Introduction .......................................................... 13-1

Mechanic Certification: Subpart A—General (by 14 CFR Section) .................................................. 13-1

Section 65.3, Certification of Foreign Airmen Other Than Flight Crewmembers ..................... 13-1

Section 65.11, Application and Issue................ 13-1

Section 65.12, Offenses Involving Alcohol and Drugs ......................................................... 13-1

Section 65.13, Temporary Certificate ............... 13-1

Section 65.14, Security Disqualification ........... 13-1

Section 65.15, Duration of Certificates ............. 13-1

Section 65.16, Change of Name:

Replacement of Lost or Destroyed Certificate . 13-2 Section 65.17, Test: General Procedure .......... 13-2

• Section 65.18, Written Tests: Cheating or
• Other Unauthorized Content ............................ 13-2
• Section 65.19, Retesting After Failure .............. 13-2

Section 65.20, Applications, Certificates, Logbooks, Reports, and Records:

Falsification, Reproduction, or Alteration .......... 13-2

Section 65.21, Change of Address ................... 13-2

Refusal to Submit to a Drug or Alcohol Test ..... 13-2

Mechanic Certification: Subpart D—Mechanics

(by 14 CFR Section) ............................................ 13-3

Section 65.71, Eligibility Requirements:

General ............................................................ 13-3

• Section 65.73, Ratings ..................................... 13-3
• Section 65.75, Knowledge Requirements ........ 13-3
• Section 65.77, Experience Requirements ....... 13-3
• Section 65.79, Skill Requirements ................... 13-3
• Section 65.80, Certificated Aviation
• Maintenance ..................................................... 13-4
• Technician School Students ............................. 13-4
• Section 65.81, General Privileges and

Limitations ........................................................ 13-4

• Section 65.83, Recent Experience
• Requirements ................................................... 13-4
• Section 65.85, Airframe Rating: Additional

Privileges .......................................................... 13-4

Section 65.87, Powerplant Rating: Additional

Privileges .......................................................... 13-4

Section 65.89, Display of Certificate ................ 13-4

Inspection Authorization (IA) (by 14 CFR

Section) ............................................................... 13-5

Section 65.91, Inspection Authorization ........... 13-5

Section 65.92, Inspection Authorization:

Duration ............................................................ 13-5

Section 65.93, Inspection Authorization:

Renewal ........................................................... 13-5

Section 65.95, Inspection Authorization:

Privileges and Limitations ................................ 13-6

Ethics .................................................................. 13-6

A Scenario ........................................................ 13-6

• Final Observation .......................................... 13-7
• Chapter 14
• Human Factors ..................................................14-1

Introduction .......................................................... 14-1

• FAA Involvement .............................................. 14-1
• Importance of Human Factors .......................... 14-1
• Definitions of Human Factors ........................... 14-1
• What are Human Factors? .................................. 14-2
• Elements of Human Factors ............................. 14-2
• Clinical Psychology ....................................... 14-3
• Experimental Psychology .............................. 14-3
• Anthropometry .............................................. 14-4
• Computer Science ........................................ 14-4
• Cognitive Science ......................................... 14-4
• Safety Engineering ....................................... 14-4
• Medical Science ............................................ 14-4
• Organizational Psychology ........................... 14-4
• Educational Psychology ............................... 14-5
• Industrial Engineering ................................. 14-5
• History of Human Factors .................................... 14-6
• Evolution of Maintenance Human Factors ....... 14-7

The Pear Model ................................................... 14-9

People .............................................................. 14-9

• Environment ..................................................... 14-9
• Physical ....................................................... 14-10
• Organizational ............................................. 14-10

Actions ........................................................... 14-10

Resources ...................................................... 14-10

Human Error ...................................................... 14-13

• Types of Errors ............................................... 14-13
• Unintentional ............................................... 14-13
• Intentional .................................................. 14-13
• Active & Latent ........................................... 14-13
• The “Dirty Dozen” .............................................. 14-13
• Lack of Communication .................................. 14-13
• Complacency ................................................. 14-14
• Lack of Knowledge ......................................... 14-14

Distraction ...................................................... 14-15

Lack of Teamwork .......................................... 14-16

Fatigue ........................................................... 14-16

Lack of Resources ......................................... 14-18

Lack of Assertiveness .................................... 14-22

Stress ............................................................. 14-24

• Physical Stressors ..................................... 14-24
• Psychological Stressors ............................. 14-24
• Physiological Stressors .............................. 14-25
• Lack of Awareness ......................................... 14-26

Norms ............................................................. 14-26

• Example of Common Maintenance Errors ..... 14-28
• Where to Get Information .................................. 14-29
• Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) ............ 14-30
• FAA’s Maintenance Fatigue Section ........... 14-30
• FAA Safety Team......................................... 14-31
• Other Resources ............................................ 14-31
• System Safety Services .............................. 14-31
• Human Factors & Ergonomics Society
• (HFES) ........................................................ 14-31
• International Ergonomics Association (IEA) 14-31

Glossary ..............................................................G-1

Index ......................................................................I-1