PHAK 5-12

Pitching Rolling Yawing Lateral axis Longitudinal axis Vertical axis Figure 5-18. Axes of an airplane. During the takeoff phase of flight, ground effect produces some important relationships. An aircraft leaving ground effect after takeoff encounters just the reverse of an aircraft entering ground effect during landing. The aircraft leaving ground effect will: • Require an increase in AOA to maintain the same CL • Experience an increase in induced drag and thrust required • Experience a decrease in stability and a nose-up change in moment • Experience a reduction in static source pressure and increase in indicated airspeed Ground effect must be considered during takeoffs and landings. For example, if a pilot fails to understand the relationship between the aircraft and ground effect during takeoff, a hazardous situation is possible because the recommended takeoff speed may not be achieved. Due to the reduced drag in ground effect, the aircraft may seem capable of takeoff well below the recommended speed. As the aircraft rises out of ground effect with a deficiency of speed, the greater induced drag may result in marginal initial climb performance. In extreme conditions, such as high gross weight, high density altitude, and high temperature, a deficiency of airspeed during takeoff may permit the aircraft to become airborne but be incapable of sustaining flight out of ground effect. In this case, the aircraft may become airborne initially with a deficiency of speed and then settle back to the runway. A pilot should not attempt to force an aircraft to become airborne with a deficiency of speed. The manufacturer’s recommended takeoff speed is necessary to provide adequate initial climb performance. It is also important that a definite climb be established before a pilot retracts the landing gear or flaps. Never retract the landing gear or flaps prior to establishing a positive rate of climb and only after achieving a safe altitude. If, during the landing phase of flight, the aircraft is brought into ground effect with a constant AOA, the aircraft experiences an increase in CL and a reduction in the thrust required, and a “floating” effect may occur. Because of the reduced drag and lack of power-off deceleration in ground effect, any excess speed at the point of flare may incur a considerable “float” distance. As the aircraft nears the point of touchdown, ground effect is most realized at altitudes less than the wingspan. During the final phases of the approach as the aircraft nears the ground, a reduction of power is necessary to offset the increase in lift caused from ground effect otherwise the aircraft will have a tendency to climb above the desired glidepath (GP). Axes of an Aircraft The axes of an aircraft are three imaginary lines that pass through an aircraft’s CG. The axes can be considered as imaginary axles around which the aircraft turns. The three axes pass through the CG at 90° angles to each other. The axis passes through the CG and parallel to a line from nose to tail is the longitudinal axis, the axis that passes parallel to a line from wingtip to wingtip is the lateral axis, and the axis that passes through the CG at right angles to the other two axes is the vertical axis. Whenever an aircraft changes its flight attitude or position in flight, it rotates about one or more of the three axes. [Figure 5-18] The aircraft’s motion about its longitudinal axis resembles the roll of a ship from side to side. In fact, the names used to describe the motion about an aircraft’s three axes were originally nautical terms. They have been adapted to aeronautical terminology due to the similarity of motion of aircraft and seagoing ships. The motion about the aircraft’s longitudinal axis is “roll,” the motion about its lateral axis is