PHAK 3-12

Figure 3-17. Composite materials in aircraft, such as Columbia 350 (top), Boeing 787 (middle), and a Coast Guard HH-65 (bottom). In a composite aircraft, fiberglass is an excellent electrical insulator, while carbon fiber conducts electricity, but not as easily as aluminum. Therefore, additional electrical conductivity needs to be added to the outside layer of composite skin. This is done typically with fine metal meshes bonded to the skin surfaces. Aluminum and copper mesh are the two most common types, with aluminum used on fiberglass and copper on carbon fiber. Any structural repairs on lightning-strike protected areas must also include the mesh as well as the underlying structure. For composite aircraft with internal radio antennas, there must be “windows” in the lightning strike mesh in the area of the antenna. Internal radio antennas may be found in fiberglass composites because fiberglass is transparent to radio frequencies, where carbon fiber is not. The Future of Composites In the decades since World War II, composites have earned an important role in aircraft structure design. Their design flexibility and corrosion resistance, as well as the high strength-to-weight ratios possible, will undoubtedly continue to lead to more innovative aircraft designs in the future. From the Cirrus SR-20 to the Boeing 787, it is obvious that composites have found a home in aircraft construction and are here to stay. [Figure 3-17] Instrumentation: Moving into the Future Until recently, most GA aircraft were equipped with individual instruments utilized collectively to safely operate and maneuver the aircraft. With the release of the electronic flight display (EFD) system, conventional instruments have been replaced by multiple liquid crystal display (LCD) screens. The first screen is installed in front of the pilot position and is referred to as the primary flight display (PFD). The second screen, positioned approximately in the center of the instrument panel, is referred to as the multi-function display (MFD). These two screens de-clutter instrument panels while increasing safety. This has been accomplished through the utilization of solid state instruments that have a failure rate far less than those of conventional analog instrumentation. [Figure 3-18] With today’s improvements in avionics and the introduction of EFDs, pilots at any level of experience need an astute knowledge of the onboard flight control systems, as well as an understanding of how automation melds with aeronautical decision-making (ADM). These subjects are covered in detail in Chapter 2, Aeronautical Decision-Making. Whether an aircraft has analog or digital (glass) instruments, the instrumentation falls into three different categories: performance, control, and navigation. Performance Instruments The performance instruments indicate the aircraft’s actual performance. Performance is determined by reference to the altimeter, airspeed or vertical speed indicator (VSI), heading indicator, and turn-and-slip indicator. The performance instruments directly reflect the performance the aircraft is achieving. The speed of the aircraft can be referenced on the airspeed indicator. The altitude can be referenced on the altimeter. The aircraft’s climb performance can be determined by referencing the VSI. Other performance instruments available are the heading indicator, angle of attack indicator, and the slip-skid indicator. [Figure 3-19]