AIM 5-3-8

Whenever an aircraft is cleared to a fix other than the destination airport and delay is expected, it is the responsibility of ATC to issue complete holding instructions (unless the pattern is charted), an EFC time and best estimate of any additional en route/terminal delay. NOTE-

Only those holding patterns depicted on U.S. government or commercially produced (meeting FAA requirements) low/high altitude en route, and area or STAR charts should be used.

If the holding pattern is charted and the controller doesn't issue complete holding instructions, the pilot is expected to hold as depicted on the appropriate chart. When the pattern is charted on the assigned procedure or route being flown, ATC may omit all holding instructions except the charted holding direction and the statement AS PUBLISHED; for example, HOLD EAST AS PUBLISHED. ATC must always issue complete holding instructions when pilots request them.

If no holding pattern is charted and holding instructions have not been issued, the pilot should ask ATC for holding instructions prior to reaching the fix. This procedure will eliminate the possibility of an aircraft entering a holding pattern other than that desired by ATC. If unable to obtain holding instructions prior to reaching the fix (due to frequency congestion, stuck microphone, etc.), then enter a standard pattern on the course on which the aircraft approached the fix and request further clearance as soon as possible. In this event, the altitude/flight level of the aircraft at the clearance limit will be protected so that separation will be provided as required.

When an aircraft is 3 minutes or less from a clearance limit and a clearance beyond the fix has not been received, the pilot is expected to start a speed reduction so that the aircraft will cross the fix, initially, at or below the maximum holding airspeed.

When no delay is expected, the controller should issue a clearance beyond the fix as soon as possible and, whenever possible, at least 5 minutes before the aircraft reaches the clearance limit.

Pilots should report to ATC the time and altitude/flight level at which the aircraft reaches the clearance limit and report leaving the clearance limit. NOTE-

In the event of two‐way communications failure, pilots are required to comply with 14 CFR section 91.185.

When holding at a VOR station, pilots should begin the turn to the outbound leg at the time of the first complete reversal of the to/from indicator.

Patterns at the most generally used holding fixes are depicted (charted) on U.S. Government or commercially produced (meeting FAA requirements) Low or High Altitude En Route, Area, Departure Procedure, and STAR Charts. Pilots are expected to hold in the pattern depicted unless specifically advised otherwise by ATC. NOTE-

Holding patterns that protect for a maximum holding airspeed other than the standard may be depicted by an icon, unless otherwise depicted. The icon is a standard holding pattern symbol (racetrack) with the airspeed restriction shown in the center. In other cases, the airspeed restriction will be depicted next to the standard holding pattern symbol.

REFERENCE-

AIM, Para 5-3-8 j 2 , Holding.

An ATC clearance requiring an aircraft to hold at a fix where the pattern is not charted will include the following information: (See FIG 5-3-2 .) Direction of holding from the fix in terms of the eight cardinal compass points (i.e., N, NE, E, SE, etc.).

Holding fix (the fix may be omitted if included at the beginning of the transmission as the clearance limit).

Radial, course, bearing, airway or route on which the aircraft is to hold.

Leg length in miles if DME or RNAV is to be used (leg length will be specified in minutes on pilot request or if the controller considers it necessary).

Direction of turn if left turns are to be made, the pilot requests, or the controller considers it necessary.

Time to expect further clearance and any pertinent additional delay information. FIG 5-3-8 Holding Patterns

FIG 5-3-8 Holding Pattern Descriptive Terms

Holding pattern airspace protection is based on the following procedures. Descriptive Terms. Standard Pattern. Right turns (See FIG 5-3-3 .)

Nonstandard Pattern. Left turns

Airspeeds. All aircraft may hold at the following altitudes and maximum holding airspeeds: Altitude (MSL)

Airspeed (KIAS)

MHA - 6,000'

200

6,001' - 14,000'

230

14,001' and above

265

NOTE-

These are the maximum indicated air speeds applicable to all holding.

The following are exceptions to the maximum holding airspeeds: Holding patterns from 6,001' to 14,000' may be restricted to a maximum airspeed of 210 KIAS. This nonstandard pattern will be depicted by an icon.

Holding patterns may be restricted to a maximum speed. The speed restriction is depicted in parenthesis inside the holding pattern on the chart: e.g., (175). The aircraft should be at or below the maximum speed prior to initially crossing the holding fix to avoid exiting the protected airspace. Pilots unable to comply with the maximum airspeed restriction should notify ATC.

Holding patterns at USAF airfields only - 310 KIAS maximum, unless otherwise depicted.

Holding patterns at Navy fields only - 230 KIAS maximum, unless otherwise depicted.

All helicopter/power lift aircraft holding on a “COPTER” instrument procedure is predicated on a minimum airspeed of 90 KIAS unless charted otherwise.

When a climb-in hold is specified by a published procedure (for example, “Climb-in holding pattern to depart XYZ VORTAC at or above 10,000.” or “All aircraft climb-in TRUCK holding pattern to cross TRUCK Int at or above 11,500 before proceeding on course.”), additional obstacle protection area has been provided to allow for greater airspeeds in the climb for those aircraft requiring them. A maximum airspeed of 310 KIAS is permitted in Climb-in-holding, unless a maximum holding airspeed is published, in which case that maximum airspeed is applicable. The airspeed limitations in 14 CFR section 91.117, Aircraft Speed, still apply.

The following phraseology may be used by an ATCS to advise a pilot of the maximum holding airspeed for a holding pattern airspace area. PHRASEOLOGY-

(AIRCRAFT IDENTIFICATION) (holding instructions, when needed) MAXIMUM HOLDING AIRSPEED IS (speed in knots).

FIG 5-3-8 Holding Pattern Entry Procedures

Entry Procedures. Holding protected airspace is designed based in part on pilot compliance with the three recommended holding pattern entry procedures discussed below. Deviations from these recommendations, coupled with excessive airspeed crossing the holding fix, may in some cases result in the aircraft exceeding holding protected airspace. (See FIG 5-3-4 .) Parallel Procedure. When approaching the holding fix from anywhere in sector (a), the parallel entry procedure would be to turn to a heading to parallel the holding course outbound on the nonholding side for one minute, turn in the direction of the holding pattern through more than 180 degrees, and return to the holding fix or intercept the holding course inbound.

Teardrop Procedure. When approaching the holding fix from anywhere in sector (b), the teardrop entry procedure would be to fly to the fix, turn outbound to a heading for a 30 degree teardrop entry within the pattern (on the holding side) for a period of one minute, then turn in the direction of the holding pattern to intercept the inbound holding course.

Direct Entry Procedure. When approaching the holding fix from anywhere in sector (c), the direct entry procedure would be to fly directly to the fix and turn to follow the holding pattern.

While other entry procedures may enable the aircraft to enter the holding pattern and remain within protected airspace, the parallel, teardrop and direct entries are the procedures for entry and holding recommended by the FAA, and were derived as part of the development of the size and shape of the obstacle protection areas for holding.

Nonstandard Holding Pattern. Fix end and outbound end turns are made to the left. Entry procedures to a nonstandard pattern are oriented in relation to the 70 degree line on the holding side just as in the standard pattern.

Timing. Inbound Leg. At or below 14,000 feet MSL: 1 minute.

Above 14,000 feet MSL: 1 1 / 2 minutes. NOTE-

The initial outbound leg should be flown for 1 minute or 1 1 / 2 minutes (appropriate to altitude). Timing for subsequent outbound legs should be adjusted, as necessary, to achieve proper inbound leg time. Pilots may use any navigational means available; i.e., DME, RNAV, etc., to ensure the appropriate inbound leg times.

Outbound leg timing begins over/abeam the fix, whichever occurs later. If the abeam position cannot be determined, start timing when turn to outbound is completed.

Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)/ GPS Along-Track Distance (ATD). DME/GPS holding is subject to the same entry and holding procedures except that distances (nautical miles) are used in lieu of time values. The outbound course of the DME/GPS holding pattern is called the outbound leg of the pattern. The controller or the instrument approach procedure chart will specify the length of the outbound leg. The end of the outbound leg is determined by the DME or ATD readout. The holding fix on conventional procedures, or controller defined holding based on a conventional navigation aid with DME, is a specified course or radial and distances are from the DME station for both the inbound and outbound ends of the holding pattern. When flying published GPS overlay or stand alone procedures with distance specified, the holding fix will be a waypoint in the database and the end of the outbound leg will be determined by the ATD. Some GPS overlay and early stand alone procedures may have timing specified. (See FIG 5-3-5 , FIG 5-3-6 and FIG 5-3-7 .) See paragraph 1-1-17 , Global Positioning System (GPS), for requirements and restriction on using GPS for IFR operations. FIG 5-3-8 Inbound Toward NAVAID

NOTE-

When the inbound course is toward the NAVAID, the fix distance is 10 NM, and the leg length is 5 NM, then the end of the outbound leg will be reached when the DME reads 15 NM.

FIG 5-3-8 Inbound Leg Away from NAVAID

NOTE-

When the inbound course is away from the NAVAID and the fix distance is 28 NM, and the leg length is 8 NM, then the end of the outbound leg will be reached when the DME reads 20 NM.

Use of RNAV Distance in lieu of DME Distance. Substitution of RNAV computed distance to or from a NAVAID in place of DME distance is permitted when holding. However, the actual holding location and pattern flown will be further from the NAVAID than designed due to the lack of slant range in the position solution (see FIG 5-3-7 ). This may result in a slight difference between RNAV distance readout in reference to the NAVAID and the DME readout, especially at higher altitudes. When used solely for DME substitution, the difference between RNAV distance to/from a fix and DME slant range distance can be considered negligible and no pilot action is required. REFERENCE-

AIM, Para 1-2-3 , Use of Suitable Area Navigation (RNAV) Systems on Conventional Procedures and Routes.

FIG 5-3-8 Difference Between DME Distance From NAVAID & RNAV Computed Distance From NAVAID

Use of RNAV Guidance and Holding. RNAV systems, including multi-sensor Flight Management Systems (FMS) and stand-alone GPS receivers, may be used to furnish lateral guidance when executing a hold. The manner in which holding is implemented in an RNAV system varies widely between aircraft and RNAV system manufacturers. Holding pattern data may be extracted from the RNAV database for published holds or may be manually entered for ad-hoc ATC-assigned holds. Pilots are expected to be familiar with the capabilities and limitations of the specific RNAV system used for holding. All holding, including holding defined on an RNAV or RNP procedure, is based on the conventional NAVAID holding design criteria, including the holding protected airspace construction. There are differences between the holding entry and flight track assumed in conventional holding pattern design and the entry and track that may be flown when RNAV guidance is used to execute holding. Individually, these differences may not affect the ability of the aircraft to remain within holding pattern protected airspace. However, cumulatively, they can result in deviations sufficient to result in excursions up to limits of the holding pattern protected airspace, and in some circumstances beyond protected airspace. The following difference and considerations apply when an RNAV system furnishes the lateral guidance used to fly a holding pattern: Many systems use ground track angle instead of heading to select the entry method. While the holding pattern design allows a 5 degree tolerance, this may result in an unexpected entry when the winds induce a large drift angle.

The holding protected airspace is based on the assumption that the aircraft will fly-over the holding fix upon initial entry. RNAV systems may execute a “fly-by” turn when approaching the holding fix prior to entry. A “fly-by” turn during a direct entry from the holding pattern side of holding course may result in excursions beyond protected airspace, especially as the intercept angle and ground speed increase.

During holding, RNAV systems furnish lateral steering guidance using either a constant bank or constant radius to achieve the desired inbound and outbound turns. An aircraft's flight guidance system may use reduced bank angles for all turns including turns in holding, especially at higher altitudes, that may result in exceeding holding protected airspace. Use of a shallower bank angle will expand both the width and length of the aircraft track, especially as wind speed increases. If the flight guidance system's bank angle limit feature is pilot-selectable, a minimum 25 degree bank angle should be selected regardless of altitude unless aircraft operating limitations specify otherwise and the pilot advises ATC.

Where a holding distance is published, the turn from the outbound leg begins at the published distance from the holding fix, thus establishing the design turn point required to remain within protected airspace. RNAV systems apply a database coded or pilot-entered leg distance as a maximum length of the inbound leg to the holding fix. The RNAV system then calculates a turn point from the outbound leg required to achieve this inbound leg length. This often results in an RNAV-calculated turn point on the outbound leg beyond the design turn point. (See FIG 5-3-8 ). With a strong headwind against the outbound leg, RNAV systems may fly up to and possibly beyond the limits of protected airspace before turning inbound. (See FIG 5-3-9 .) This is especially true at higher altitudes where wind speeds are greater and ground speed results in a wider holding pattern. FIG 5-3-8 RNAV Lateral Guidance and Holding – No Wind

FIG 5-3-8 RNAV Lateral Guidance and Holding – Effect of Wind

Some RNAV systems compute the holding pattern based on the aircraft's altitude and speed at a point prior to entering the hold. If the indicated airspeed is not reduced to comply with the maximum holding speed before this point, the computed pattern may exceed the protected airspace. Loading or executing a holding pattern may result in the speed and time limits applicable to the aircraft's current altitude being used to define the holding pattern for RNAV lateral guidance. This may result in an incorrect hold being flown by the RNAV system. For example, entering or executing the holding pattern above 14,000 feet when intending to hold below 14,000 feet may result in applying 1 ½ minute timing below 14,000 feet. NOTE-

Some systems permit the pilot to modify leg time of holding patterns defined in the navigation database; for example, a hold-in-lieu of procedure turn. In most RNAV systems, the holding pattern time remains at the pilot-modified time and will not revert back to the coded time if the aircraft descends to a lower altitude where a shorter time interval applies.

RNAV systems are not able to alert the pilot for excursions outside of holding pattern protected airspace since the dimensions of this airspace are not included in the navigation database. In addition, the dimensions of holding pattern protected airspace vary with altitude for a charted holding pattern, even when the hold is used for the same application. Close adherence to the pilot actions described in this section reduce the likelihood of exceeding the boundary of holding pattern protected airspace when using RNAV lateral guidance to conduct holding.

Holding patterns may be stored in the RNAV system's navigation database and include coding with parameters defining how the RNAV system will conduct the hold. For example, coding will determine whether holding is conducted to manual termination (HM), continued holding until the aircraft reaches a specified altitude (HA), or holding is conducted until the holding fix is crossed the first time after entry (HF). Some systems do not store all holding patterns, and may only store patterns associated with missed approaches and hold-in-lieu of procedure turn (HILPT). Some store all holding as standard patterns and require pilot action to conduct non-standard holding (left turns). Pilots are cautioned that multiple holding patterns may be established at the same fix. These holding patterns may differ in respect to turn directions and leg lengths depending on their application as an en route holding pattern, a holding pattern charted on a SID or STAR, or when used on an instrument approach procedure. Many RNAV systems limit the database coding at a particular fix to a single holding pattern definition. Pilots extracting the holding pattern from the navigation database are responsible for confirming that the holding pattern conforms to the assigned charted holding pattern in terms of turn direction, speed limit, timing, and distance.

If ATC assigns holding that is not charted, then the pilot is responsible for programming the RNAV system with the assigned holding course, turn direction, speed limit, leg length, or leg time.

Changes made after the initial execution may not apply until the next circuit of the holding pattern if the aircraft is in close proximity to the holding fix.

Pilot Action. The following actions are recommended to ensure that the aircraft remains within holding protected airspace when holding is performed using either conventional NAVAID guidance or when using RNAV lateral guidance. Speed. When ATC furnishes advance notice of holding, start speed reduction to be at or below the maximum holding speed allowed at least 3 minutes prior to crossing the holding fix. If advance notice by ATC is not provided, begin speed reduction as expeditiously as practical. It is acceptable to allow RNAV systems to determine an appropriate deceleration point prior to the holding fix and to manage the speed reduction to the RNAV computed holding speed. If the pilot does not permit the RNAV system to manage the deceleration from the computed point, the actual hold pattern size at holding entry may differ from the holding pattern size computed by the RNAV system. Aircraft are expected to enter holding at or below the maximum holding speed established in paragraph 5-3-8 j 2 (a) or the charted maximum holding speed. All fixed wing aircraft conducting holding should fly at speeds at or above 90 KIAS to minimize the influence of wind drift.

When RNAV lateral guidance is used in fixed wing airplanes, it is desirable to enter and conduct holding at the lowest practical airspeed consistent with the airplane's recommended holding speed to address the cumulative errors associated with RNAV holding and increase the probability of remaining within protected airspace. It is acceptable to allow RNAV systems to determine a recommended holding speed that is at or below the maximum holding speed.

Helicopter holding is based on a minimum airspeed of 90 KIAS.

Advise ATC immediately if unable to comply with the maximum holding airspeed and request an alternate clearance. NOTE-

Speeds above the maximum or published holding speed may be necessary due to turbulence, icing, etc. Exceeding maximum holding airspeed may result in aircraft excursions beyond the holding pattern protected airspace. In a non-radar environment, the pilot should advise ATC that they cannot accept the assigned hold.

Ensure the RNAV system applies the proper time and speed restrictions to a holding pattern. This is especially critical when climbing or descending to a holding pattern altitude where time and speed restrictions are different than at the present aircraft altitude.

Bank Angle. For holding not involving the use of RNAV lateral guidance, make all turns during entry and while holding at: 3 degrees per second, or

30 degree bank angle, or

25 degree bank angle, provided a flight director system is used. NOTE-

Use whichever requires the least bank angle.

When using RNAV lateral guidance to conduct holding, it is acceptable to permit the RNAV system to calculate the appropriate bank angle for the outbound and inbound turns. Do not use flight guidance system bank angle limiting functions of less than 25 degrees unless the feature is not pilot-selectable, required by the aircraft limitations, or its use is necessary to comply with the aircraft's minimum maneuvering speed margins. If the bank angle must be limited to less than 25 degrees, advise ATC that additional area for holding is required.

Compensate for wind effect primarily by drift correction on the inbound and outbound legs. When outbound, triple the inbound drift correction to avoid major turning adjustments; for example, if correcting left by 8 degrees when inbound, correct right by 24 degrees when outbound.

Determine entry turn from aircraft heading upon arrival at the holding fix; +/- 5 degrees in heading is considered to be within allowable good operating limits for determining entry. When using RNAV lateral guidance for holding, it is permissible to allow the system to compute the holding entry.

RNAV lateral guidance may execute a fly-by turn beginning at an excessively large distance from the holding fix. Reducing speed to the maximum holding speed at least 3 minutes prior to reaching the holding fix and using the recommended 25 degree bank angle will reduce potential excursions beyond protected airspace.

When RNAV guidance is used for holding, pilots should be prepared to intervene if the turn from outbound leg to the inbound leg does not begin within a reasonable distance of the charted leg length, especially when holding is used as a course reversal HILPT. Pilot intervention is not required when holding in an ATC-assigned holding pattern that is not charted. However, notify ATC when the outbound leg length becomes excessive when RNAV guidance is used for holding.

When holding at a fix and instructions are received specifying the time of departure from the fix, the pilot should adjust the aircraft's flight path within the limits of the established holding pattern in order to leave the fix at the exact time specified. After departing the holding fix, normal speed is to be resumed with respect to other governing speed requirements, such as terminal area speed limits, specific ATC requests, etc. Where the fix is associated with an instrument approach and timed approaches are in effect, a procedure turn must not be executed unless the pilot advises ATC, since aircraft holding are expected to proceed inbound on final approach directly from the holding pattern when approach clearance is received.

Radar surveillance of holding pattern airspace areas. Whenever aircraft are holding, ATC will usually provide radar surveillance of the holding airspace on the controller's radar display.

The controller will attempt to detect any holding aircraft that stray outside the holding airspace and will assist any detected aircraft to return to the assigned airspace. NOTE-

Many factors could prevent ATC from providing this additional service, such as workload, number of targets, precipitation, ground clutter, and radar system capability. These circumstances may make it unfeasible to maintain radar identification of aircraft to detect aircraft straying from the holding pattern. The provision of this service depends entirely upon whether controllers believe they are in a position to provide it and does not relieve a pilot of their responsibility to adhere to an accepted ATC clearance.

ATC is responsible for traffic and obstruction separation when they have assigned holding that is not associated with a published (charted) holding pattern. Altitudes assigned will be at or above the minimum vectoring or minimum IFR altitude.

If an aircraft is established in a published holding pattern at an assigned altitude above the published minimum holding altitude and subsequently cleared for the approach, the pilot may descend to the published minimum holding altitude. The holding pattern would only be a segment of the IAP if it is published on the instrument procedure chart and is used in lieu of a procedure turn.

For those holding patterns where there are no published minimum holding altitudes, the pilot, upon receiving an approach clearance, must maintain the last assigned altitude until leaving the holding pattern and established on the inbound course. Thereafter, the published minimum altitude of the route segment being flown will apply. It is expected that the pilot will be assigned a holding altitude that will permit a normal descent on the inbound course.

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Chapter 5. Air Traffic Procedures AIM

AIM by Chapter Number Chapter 0. General Information Chapter 1. Air Navigation Chapter 2. Aeronautical Lighting and Other Airport Visual Aids Chapter 3. Airspace Chapter 4. Air Traffic Control Chapter 5. Air Traffic Procedures Chapter 6. Emergency Procedures Chapter 7. Safety of Flight Chapter 8. Medical Facts for Pilots Chapter 9. Aeronautical Charts and Related Publications Chapter 10. Helicopter Operations Chapter 11. Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS) Appendix 1 Appendix 2 Appendix 3 Appendix 4 Appendix 5

ATPUBS

AIM by Topic

General Information Explanation of Changes

Air Navigation Navigation Aids

Performance-Based Navigation (PBN) and Area Navigation (RNAV)

Aeronautical Lighting and Other Airport Visual Aids Airport Lighting Aids

Air Navigation and Obstruction Lighting

Airport Marking Aids and Signs

Airspace General

Controlled Airspace

Class G Airspace

Special Use Airspace

Other Airspace Areas

Air Traffic Control Services Available to Pilots

Radio Communications Phraseology and Techniques

Airport Operations

ATC Clearances and Aircraft Separation

Surveillance Systems

Operational Policy/Procedures for Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum (RVSM) in the Domestic U.S., Alaska, Offshore Airspace and the San Juan FIR

Operational Policy/Procedures for the Gulf of America 50 NM Lateral Separation Initiative

Air Traffic Procedures Preflight

Departure Procedures

En Route Procedures

Arrival Procedures

Pilot/Controller Roles and Responsibilities

National Security and Interception Procedures

Emergency Procedures General

Emergency Services Available to Pilots

Distress and Urgency Procedures

Two‐way Radio Communications Failure

Aircraft Rescue and Fire Fighting Communications

Safety of Flight Meteorology

Barometric Altimeter Errors and Setting Procedures

Cold Temperature Barometric Altimeter Errors, Setting Procedures and Cold Temperature Airports (CTA)

Wake Turbulence

Bird Hazards and Flight Over National Refuges, Parks, and Forests

Potential Flight Hazards

Safety, Accident, and Hazard Reports

Medical Facts for Pilots Fitness for Flight

Aeronautical Charts and Related Publications Types of Charts Available

Helicopter Operations Helicopter IFR Operations

Special Operations

Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS) General

Small Unmanned Aircraft System (sUAS)

Large UAS (MGOW 55 Pounds or More)

Airspace Access for UAS

UAS Pilot Testing, Certification and Responsibilities

Advanced Air Mobility

UAS Operations on Airports

Other Information and Best Practices

Appendix 1

Appendix 2

Appendix 3

Appendix 4

Appendix 5

Air Traffic Procedures

Arrival Procedures

Chapter 5. Air Traffic Procedures

Section 4. Arrival Procedures